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The aim of the study was to analyse the influence on tail-biting in undocked pigs during the rearing period of crude fibre in piglets' rations. All pigs were fed the same pre-starter until weaning. The study comprised two trials with four experimental groups each. The first trial contained: a control group (CG1) with conventional feed (up to 40 g/kg crude fibre), two groups with an increased crude fibre content of up to 50 g/kg (G5) and 60 g/kg (G6), respectively, and one group with conventional feed and crude fibre provision ad libitum (AL). The second trial consisted of a control group (CG2) which received the same conventional feed as CG1 and three treatment groups with either soya hulls (SS), dried sugar beet pulp (DP) or oat fibre (OF) admixed to their ration, to achieve a crude fibre content of 60 g/kg in all three groups. The rearing week, the batch, the treatment group (only in trial one) and the interaction between batch and treatment group had a significant influence on tail-lesions (P < 0.05). The tail-biting process started in rearing week 3 (trial one) and 5 (trial two), respectively. Due to the low frequency of tail-biting during the present study, crude fibre seems to have no major influence on tail-biting during the rearing period. This unexpected result may be caused by the optimized conditions in which the piglets were kept and the intensive animal observation carried out by the employees. However, the batch effect was most influential.

Background: Multiple diagnostic procedures, their results and interpretation in a case with severe lameness in fattening pigs are described. It is shown that selected diagnostic steps lead to identification of various risk factors for disease development in the affected herd. One focus of this case report is the prioritization of diagnostic steps to verify the impact of the different conditions, which finally led to the clinical disorder. Disease is the consequence of previously acting factors, and the involved diagnostic institute is the last stage in the timeline. Some diagnostic findings might therefore no longer be significant. Assessing a sufficient dietary phosphorus (P) supply and its impact on disease development proved most difficult. The diagnostic approach based on estimated calculation of phosphorus intake is presented in detail.Case presentation: On a farrow-to-finishing farm, lameness occurred in pigs with 30-70 kg body weight. Necropsy of three diseased pigs revealed claw lesions and alterations at the knee and elbow joints. Histologic findings were characteristic of osteochondrosis. All pigs were positively tested for Mycoplasma hyosynoviae in affected joints. P values in blood did not indicate a P deficiency, while bone ashing in one of three animals resulted in a level indicating an insufficient mineral supply. Analysis of diet composition revealed a low phosphorus content in two diets, which might have led to a marginal P supply in individuals with high average daily gains with respect to development of bone mass and connective tissue prior to presentation of affected animals. Finally, the impact of dietary factors for disease development could not be evidenced in all submitted animals in this case.Conclusions: Mycoplasma (M.) hyosynoviae was identified to be an important etiologic factor for disease. Other, non-infectious factors, such as osteochondrosis and claw lesions might have favored development of lameness. In addition, a relevant marginal P supply for pigs was found in a limited time period in a phase of intense growing, but the potential interaction with infection by M. hyosynoviae is unknown. The presented case of severe lameness in fattening pigs revealed that three different influences presumably act in pathogenesis. Focusing only on one factor and ignoring others might be misleading regarding subsequent decision-making for prevention and therapy. Finally, clinical symptoms disappeared after some changes in diet composition and anti-inflammatory treatment of individual animals.

Positive emotions constitute a very important part of animal welfare. They are, however, also the most challenging elements to be objectively measured. Due to its feasibility, the qualitative behavior assessment (QBA) is included in the Welfare Quality Assessment protocol for growing pigs as the animal-based measurement tool for positive emotions. Reliability testing on the QBA in the form as included in the protocols is, however, rare. Therefore, the present study aimed at the evaluation of the inter- and intraobserver as well as test-retest reliability of the QBA in growing pigs. This was done by trained observers based on 19 joint on-farm assessments, the repeated assessments of 24 farms during 2 growing periods, and 107 video sequences. The results were compared between the observers and the repeated farm visits. Therefore, millimeter values were directly compared by calculation of Spearman's rank correlation coefficients (RS), and furthermore, the results were subjected to a principal component analysis (PCA). The results identified 2 main principal components (PC; PC1 and PC2) together explaining from 42 to 75% of the variation in the recorded variables of the different PCA. The factor loadings that the adjectives reached on PC1 and PC2 were compared by calculation of RS between observers and farm visits, respectively. Reliability was interpreted as acceptable if at least a moderate correlation was detected; that is, RS was greater than or equal to 0.4. Regarding the on-farm assessments, and, therefore, under practical conditions, no sufficient interobserver reliability (RS = -0.16 for PC1 and RS = 0.13 for PC2) was found. In terms of the test-retest reliability, only 1 comparison of 2 farm visits showed a positive correlation for PC1 (RS = 0.79) as well as for PC2 (RS = 0.64). The other 5 comparisons presented negative to weak positive correlations. However, based on video sequences, good interobserver (RS = 0.67 for PC1 and RS = 0.60 for PC2) and intraobserver (RS = 0.94 for PC1 and RS = 0.44 for PC2) reliability was achieved. Therefore, the present study revealed good reliability for the QBA in the form as it is currently included in the Welfare Quality Assessment protocol for growing pigs based on video sequences but insufficient reliability for the application on the farm.

The aim of this study was to assess the feasibility and test-retest reliability of the Welfare Quality® Animal Welfare Assessment Protocol for Growing Pigs. Twenty-three German pig farms were visited repeatedly by the same trained observers; each farm being visited six times during two fattening periods. The entire protocol assessment was carried out during each farm visit, ie a Qualitative Behaviour Assessment (QBA), behavioural observations (BO), a Human Animal Relationship test (HAR) and different individual parameters (IPs), eg bursitis and tail-biting. Test-retest reliability was evaluated by a Wilcoxon signed rank test (W) and by calculation of the Smallest Detectable Change (SDC) and Limits of Agreement (LoA). The QBA presented non-satisfactory agreement between farm visits. However, good agreement, in general, was found for the BO. For the HAR, no reliability could be detected. Most IPs were of acceptable agreement, with the exception of bursitis and manure on the body. Bursitis showed great differences, which can be explained by difficulties in the assessment when the animals moved around or their legs were dirty. The disagreement in the parameter manure on the body can be explained by seasonal effects. Disagreement was further found concerning the parameters coughing, sneezing, pleuritis, pneumonia and milkspots. Feasibility was good; both observers could be well-trained to fulfil the protocol. Furthermore, the time needed for an assessment did not exceed 6 h. The parts of the protocol that proved to be insufficiently reliable need to be addressed in the future in order to enhance and improve the objective measurement of animal welfare.

The present study aimed at isolating factors of potential influence on the Novel-Object Test (NOT), the Forced Human-Approach Test (FHAT), the Voluntary Human-Approach Test (VHAT) and the Human-Animal Relationship Test (HART) to draw conclusions about factors that should be considered when using these tests for the evaluation of the welfare level at different farms. Therefore, the NOT, FHAT, VHAT and HART were performed three times on ten different fattening farms. The pigs were tested at pen level, so that all pigs of one pen were examined simultaneously and scored individually during the same test. The pigs at the beginning of fattening (1) were significantly more interested in the novel object than the pigs in the middle of fattening (2) and final fattening (3) (1: 79.3 ± 0.03 % vs. 2: 66.4 ± 0.04 %, 3: 67.7 ± 0.04 % of pigs, p

This paper discusses the arising need for an objective, but feasible, reliable and valid method for assessing animal welfare on farms. Animal welfare has become especially important since the industrialisation of animal housing after the Second World War and as public awareness and concern has increased. Simultaneously, alienation of the public from agriculture has taken place, as the population has moved increasingly from rural areas to towns. This has led to a very emotional discussion concerning the welfare of farmed animals, and thus a need for not only a clear definition but also a way of objectively measuring it has arisen. It is probably best defined as a total of the different conceptions health, natural behaviour and positive affective state. In the last few years, different methods for an objective assessment have been developed; however, all of them still face great challenges in their practical implementation and acceptance. The most promising method is probably the Welfare Quality® (WQ) approach, especially as it concentrates on animal-based parameters. The development of the WQ protocols emphasised not only the different conceptions of animal welfare but also especially the feasibility, reliability and validity of the parameters to be included. One of the main challenges of these protocols remains, however, the final aggregation of the results to a welfare score. Furthermore, a thorough cost–benefit analysis has not been carried out so far. Even more importantly, only a few studies have addressed the general reliability and validity of the complete protocols, and those studies that have addressed these issues have also revealed challenges concerning the interobserver and test–retest reliability of some of the included parameters. As an example, this is discussed in detail for the "Welfare Quality® animal welfare assessment protocol for growing pigs". In conclusion, the WQ approach can be seen as promising, but it has also revealed that there are still a considerable number of challenges that need to be addressed in further studies on the WQ protocols in order to achieve constant improvement. These challenges should be borne in mind in the application of these protocols, which should not be simply referred to as a gold standard.

Antimicrobial use in pig farming is influenced by a range of risk factors, including herd characteristics, biosecurity level, farm performance, occurrence of clinical signs and vaccination scheme, as well as farmers’ attitudes and habits towards antimicrobial use. So far, the effect of these risk factors has been explored separately. Using an innovative method called multiblock partial least-squares regression, this study aimed to investigate, in a sample of 207 farrow-to-finish farms from Belgium, France, Germany and Sweden, the relative importance of the six above mentioned categories or ‘blocks’ of risk factors for antimicrobial use in pig production. Four country separate models were developed; they showed that all six blocks provided useful contribution to explaining antimicrobial use in at least one country. The occurrence of clinical signs, especially of respiratory and nervous diseases in fatteners, was one of the largest contributing blocks in all four countries, whereas the effect of the other blocks differed between countries. In terms of risk management, it suggests that a holistic and country-specific mitigation strategy is likely to be more effective. However, further research is needed to validate our findings in larger and more representative samples, as well as in other countries.

Descriptive information on the frequency of treatments against predefined disease symptoms per age category. (DOCX 16â kb)

This paper discusses the arising need for an objective, but feasible, reliable and valid method for assessing animal welfare on farms. Animal welfare has become especially important since the industrialisation of animal housing after the Second World War and as public awareness and concern has increased. Simultaneously, alienation of the public from agriculture has taken place, as the population has moved increasingly from rural areas to towns. This has led to a very emotional discussion concerning the welfare of farmed animals, and thus a need for not only a clear definition but also a way of objectively measuring it has arisen. It is probably best defined as a total of the different conceptions health, natural behaviour and positive affective state. In the last few years, different methods for an objective assessment have been developed; however, all of them still face great challenges in their practical implementation and acceptance. The most promising method is probably the Welfare Quality® (WQ) approach, especially as it concentrates on animal-based parameters. The development of the WQ protocols emphasised not only the different conceptions of animal welfare but also especially the feasibility, reliability and validity of the parameters to be included. One of the main challenges of these protocols remains, however, the final aggregation of the results to a welfare score. Furthermore, a thorough cost–benefit analysis has not been carried out so far. Even more importantly, only a few studies have addressed the general reliability and validity of the complete protocols, and those studies that have addressed these issues have also revealed challenges concerning the interobserver and test–retest reliability of some of the included parameters. As an example, this is discussed in detail for the "Welfare Quality® animal welfare assessment protocol for growing pigs". In conclusion, the WQ approach can be seen as promising, but it has also revealed that there are still a considerable number of challenges that need to be addressed in further studies on the WQ protocols in order to achieve constant improvement. These challenges should be borne in mind in the application of these protocols, which should not be simply referred to as a gold standard.

Positive emotions constitute a very important part of animal welfare. They are, however, also the most challenging elements to be objectively measured. Due to its feasibility, the qualitative behavior assessment (QBA) is included in the Welfare Quality Assessment protocol for growing pigs as the animal-based measurement tool for positive emotions. Reliability testing on the QBA in the form as included in the protocols is, however, rare. Therefore, the present study aimed at the evaluation of the inter- and intraobserver as well as test-retest reliability of the QBA in growing pigs. This was done by trained observers based on 19 joint on-farm assessments, the repeated assessments of 24 farms during 2 growing periods, and 107 video sequences. The results were compared between the observers and the repeated farm visits. Therefore, millimeter values were directly compared by calculation of Spearman's rank correlation coefficients (RS), and furthermore, the results were subjected to a principal component analysis (PCA). The results identified 2 main principal components (PC; PC1 and PC2) together explaining from 42 to 75% of the variation in the recorded variables of the different PCA. The factor loadings that the adjectives reached on PC1 and PC2 were compared by calculation of RS between observers and farm visits, respectively. Reliability was interpreted as acceptable if at least a moderate correlation was detected; that is, RS was greater than or equal to 0.4. Regarding the on-farm assessments, and, therefore, under practical conditions, no sufficient interobserver reliability (RS = -0.16 for PC1 and RS = 0.13 for PC2) was found. In terms of the test-retest reliability, only 1 comparison of 2 farm visits showed a positive correlation for PC1 (RS = 0.79) as well as for PC2 (RS = 0.64). The other 5 comparisons presented negative to weak positive correlations. However, based on video sequences, good interobserver (RS = 0.67 for PC1 and RS = 0.60 for PC2) and intraobserver (RS = 0.94 for PC1 and RS = 0.44 for PC2) reliability was achieved. Therefore, the present study revealed good reliability for the QBA in the form as it is currently included in the Welfare Quality Assessment protocol for growing pigs based on video sequences but insufficient reliability for the application on the farm.

Pig farmers are strongly encouraged to reduce their antimicrobial usage in order to reduce the risk of antimicrobial resistance. Herd-level intervention is needed to achieve national and European reduction targets. Alternative, especially preventive measures, have to be implemented to reduce the need for antimicrobial treatments. However, little is known about the feasibility, effectiveness and return on investment of such measures. The objective of this study was to assess, across four countries, the technical and economic impact of herd-specific interventions aiming at reducing antimicrobial usage in pig production while implementing alternative measures.An intervention study was conducted between February 2014 and August 2015 in 70 farrow-to-finish pig farms located in Belgium, France, Germany and Sweden. Herd-specific interventions were defined together with the farmer and the herd veterinarian. Farms were followed over one year and their antimicrobial usage and technical performance were compared with values from the year before intervention. Compliance with the intervention plan was also monitored. Changes in margin over feed cost and net farm profit were estimated in a subset of 33 Belgian and French farms with sufficient data, using deterministic and stochastic modeling.Following interventions, a substantial reduction in antimicrobial use was achieved without negative impact the overall farm technical performance. A median reduction of 47.0% of antimicrobial usage was achieved across four countries when expressed in terms of treatment incidence from birth to slaughter, corresponding to a 30.5% median reduction of antimicrobial expenditures. Farm compliance with intervention plans was high (median: 93%; min-max: 20; 100) and farms with higher compliance tended to achieve bigger reduction (ρ = -0.18, p = 0.162). No association was found between achieved reduction and type or number of alternative measures implemented. Mortality in suckling piglets, weaners and fatteners, daily weight gain and feed conversion ratio did not significantly change over the course of the study, while the number of weaned piglets per sow per year slightly increased. The median change in net farm profit among Belgian and French farms was estimated to be €4.46 (Q25-Q75:-32.54; 80.50) and €1.23 (Q25-Q75:-32.55; 74.45) per sow per year using the detererministic and stochastic models, respectively. It was more influenced by a change in feed conversion ratio and daily weight gain than by a change in antimicrobial expenditures or intervention direct net cost. Therefore, costs of alternative measures should not be perceived as a barrier, but rather as an opportunity to optimise production practices for sustained productivity and improved animal health.

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) is wide-spread in pig populations globally. In many regions of Europe with intensive pig production and high herd densities, the virus is endemic and can cause disease and production losses. This fuels discussion about the feasibility and sustainability of virus elimination from larger geographic regions. The implementation of a program aiming at virus elimination for areas with high pig density is unprecedented and its potential success is unknown. The objective of this work was to approach pig population data with a simple method that could support assessing the feasibility of a sustainable regional PRRSV elimination. Based on known risk factors such as pig herd structure and neighborhood conditions, an index characterizing individual herds' potential for endemic virus circulation and reinfection was designed. This index was subsequently used to compare data of all pig herds in two regions with different pig- and herd-densities in Lower Saxony (North-West Germany) where PRRSV is endemic. Distribution of the indexed herds was displayed using GIS. Clusters of high herd index densities forming potential risk hot spots were identified which could represent key target areas for surveillance and biosecurity measures under a control program aimed at virus elimination. In an additional step, for the study region with the higher pig density (2463 pigs/km(2) farmland), the potential distribution of PRRSV-free and non-free herds during the implementation of a national control program aiming at national virus elimination was modeled. Complex herd and trade network structures suggest that PRRSV elimination in regions with intensive pig farming like that of middle Europe would have to involve legal regulation and be accompanied by important trade and animal movement restrictions. The proposed methodology of risk index mapping could be adapted to areas varying in size, herd structure and density. Interpreted in the regional context, this could help to classify the density of risk and to accordingly target resources and measures for elimination.

Summary Objective: Serological testing of blood samples is commonly known as an approved method to diagnose infectious diseases. Likewise it is used for monitoring infectious diseases as it is fast and cost-effective. Nevertheless interpretation of results can be difficult, especially when the samples were taken from animals, which received a vaccination prior to the serological examination. This is mainly due to the fact, that not every vaccination induces a measurable antibody reaction. In this recent case gilts were vaccinated with an attenuated live vaccine and the serum samples were negative in the ELISA. The question aroused which serological reaction to a vaccine is expected under field conditions. Material and methods: In order to clarify this question a group of 28 gilts negative for porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) virus (from a verifiable PRRSV-negative stock) were vaccinated with an attenuated PRRSV vaccine and blood samples were taken on days 0, 2, 4, 8 and 15 post vaccinationem (p. vacc). To provide a reliable means of diagnosis the samples were tested with an antibody ELISA and RT-PCR. Results: A replication of the vaccine virus was demonstrated via RT-PCR in 100% of the animals 4 days p. vacc. The first samples classified positive in the ELISA were detected 8 days p. vacc. On day 15 p. vacc. a positive serological result was obtained for all animals. Conclusion: The vaccination with an attenuated PRRSV vaccine provides a pronounced antibody reaction under field conditions. In case of a negative serological reaction in recently vaccinated pigs all steps from the manufacturing process through to the implementation of the vaccine have to be critically evaluated. Likewise correct laboratory studies and the assessment of diagnostic results need to be scrutinized.

Switzerland is currently porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) free, but semen imports from PRRSV-infected European countries are increasing. As the virus can be transmitted via semen, for example, when a free boar stud becomes infected, and the risk of its import in terms of PRRSV introduction is unknown, the annual probability to accidentally import the virus into Switzerland was estimated in a risk assessment. A quantitative stochastic model was set up with data comprised by import figures of 2010, interviews with boar stud owners and expert opinion. It resulted in an annual median number of 0.18 imported ejaculates (= imported semen doses from one collection from one donor) from PRRSV-infected boars. Hence, one infected ejaculate would be imported every 6 years and infect a mean of 10 sows. These results suggest that under current circumstances, there is a substantial risk of PRRSV introduction into Switzerland via imported boar semen and that measures to enhance safety of imports should be taken. The time from infection of a previously negative boar stud to its detection had the highest impact on the number of imported 'positive' ejaculates. Therefore, emphasis should be placed on PRRSV monitoring protocols in boar studs. Results indicated that a substantial increase in safety could only be achieved with much tighter sampling protocols than currently performed. Generally, the model could easily be customized for other applications like other countries or regions or even sow farms that want to estimate their risk when purchasing semen from a particular boar stud.

The emergence of the human 2009 pandemic H1N1 (H1N1pdm) virus from swine populations refocused public and scientific attention on swine as an important source of influenza A viruses bearing zoonotic potential. Widespread and year-round circulation of at least four stable lineages of porcine influenza viruses between 2009 and 2012 in a region of Germany with a high-density swine population is documented here. European avian influenza virus-derived H1N1 (H1N1av) viruses dominated the epidemiology, followed by human-derived subtypes H1N2 and H3N2. H1N1pdm viruses and, in particular, recently emerging reassortants between H1N1pdm and porcine HxN2 viruses (H1pdmN2) were detected in about 8% of cases. Further reassortants between these main lineages were diagnosed sporadically. Ongoing diversification both at the phylogenetic and at the antigenic level was evident for the H1N1av lineage and for some of its reassortants. The H1avN2 reassortant R1931/11 displayed conspicuously distinct genetic and antigenic features and was easily transmitted from pig to pig in an experimental infection. Continuing diverging evolution was also observed in the H1pdmN2 lineage. These viruses carry seven genome segments of the H1N1pdm virus, including a hemagglutinin gene that encodes a markedly antigenically altered protein. The zoonotic potential of this lineage remains to be determined. The results highlight the relevance of surveillance and control of porcine influenza virus infections. This is important for the health status of swine herds. In addition, a more exhaustive tracing of the formation, transmission, and spread of new reassortant influenza A viruses with unknown zoonotic potential is urgently required.

SummaryOn a piglet producing farm severe lameness was observed in pigs which had been weaned 3 weeks and longer due to severe distortions of joints and claws of fore and/or hind legs. Splaying of claws as well as flexural limb deformations particularly in the carpal joints increased in degree the older and heavier the pigs were. Because of coughing in the weaners, which had started 7–8 weeks before any lameness or limb deformation had been apparent, tetracycline was applied via water as medication. During the course of an on-site investigation, a miscalculation of dosage – 129–168 mg tetracycline per kg body weight – was revealed. It was therefore suggested to the farmer and his veterinarian to immediately stop the application of tetracycline and to use a different antibiotic against the still present coughing and sneezing. During a follow-up evaluation 4 weeks later, the farmer reported a significant decrease in affected animals. While a direct correlation between the lameness in the weaned pigs and the tetracycline dosage could not be proven, the existing evidence supports the theory that the overdosage was at least a contributing factor.

The prudent use of antimicrobials (AMs) should be widened in pig farming to reduce the risk of AM resistance (AMR) in human and veterinary medicine. It is therefore important to understand pig farmers' motivators and the barriers to AM usage (AMU) on their farms. The authors investigated pig farmers' self-estimated levels of AMU, their perceived benefits and risks and the need for AMs in a cross-sectional survey in Belgium, France, Germany and Sweden. The authors also compared these perceptions between the four countries and related them to pig farmers' actual AMU. The results showed that farmers who used more AMs also estimated their own usage as higher. Farmers perceived many benefits but relatively few risks of AMU in pig farming. Some significant cross-country differences in farmers' perceptions were found, but they were relatively small. After controlling for country differences and farm differences, only perceived risks had a significant association with AMU. The authors therefore conclude that in order to promote prudent AMU, it seems most promising to focus on the structural differences in pig farming and veterinary medicine (e.g. legislation, role of the veterinarian) among countries. In addition, interventions which aim at reducing AMU should increase farmers' awareness of the risks of extensive AMU.

The present paper focuses on evaluating the interobserver reliability of the 'Welfare Quality(®) Animal Welfare Assessment Protocol for Growing Pigs'. The protocol for growing pigs mainly consists of a Qualitative Behaviour Assessment (QBA), direct behaviour observations (BO) carried out by instantaneous scan sampling and checks for different individual parameters (IP), e.g. presence of tail biting, wounds and bursitis. Three trained observers collected the data by performing 29 combined assessments, which were done at the same time and on the same animals; but they were carried out completely independent of each other. The findings were compared by the calculation of Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients (RS), Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC), Smallest Detectable Changes (SDC) and Limits of Agreements (LoA). There was no agreement found concerning the adjectives belonging to the QBA (e.g. active: RS: 0.50, ICC: 0.30, SDC: 0.38, LoA: -0.05 to 0.45; fearful: RS: 0.06, ICC: 0.0, SDC: 0.26, LoA: -0.20 to 0.30). In contrast, the BO showed good agreement (e.g. social behaviour: RS: 0.45, ICC: 0.50, SDC: 0.09, LoA: -0.09 to 0.03 use of enrichment material: RS: 0.75, ICC: 0.68, SDC: 0.06, LoA: -0.03 to 0.03). Overall, observers agreed well in the IP, e.g. tail biting (RS: 0.52, ICC: 0.88; SDC: 0.05, LoA: -0.01 to 0.02) and wounds (RS: 0.43, ICC: 0.59, SDC: 0.10, LoA: -0.09 to 0.10). The parameter bursitis showed great differences (RS: 0.10, ICC: 0.0, SDC: 0.35, LoA: -0.37 to 0.40), which can be explained by difficulties in the assessment when the animals moved around quickly or their legs were soiled. In conclusion, the interobserver reliability was good in the BO and most IP, but not for the parameter bursitis and the QBA.

International audience; Disease prevention through biosecurity measures is believed to be an important factor for improvement of the overall health status in animal production. This study aimed at assessing the levels of implementation of biosecurity measures in pig production in four European Union (EU) countries and to describe possible associations between the biosecurity level and farm and production characteristics. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 232 farrow-to-finish pig herds in Belgium, France, Germany and Sweden between December 2012 and December 2013. The biosecurity status in each of these herds was described and quantified by using the risk-based scoring tool Biocheck.UGentTM (www.biocheck.ugent.be). Production and management characteristics, obtained from the herd management system and by interviewing the farmer, were analysed for their association with the biosecurity level. A causal path was designed to study statistical associations. The results showed that there was substantial room for improvement in the biosecurity status on many pig farms. Significant differences (P

International audience; Antimicrobial (AM) resistance is an increasing problem in human and veterinary medicine. To manage this problem, the usage of AM should be reduced in pig farming, as well as in other areas. It is important to investigate the factors that influence both pig farmers' and veterinarians' intentions to reduce AM usage, which is a prerequisite for developing intervention measures. We conducted a mail survey among pig farmers (N = 1,294) and an online survey among veterinarians (N = 334) in Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Sweden and Switzerland. The farmers' survey assessed the perceived risks and benefits of and need for AM usage; the intention to reduce AM usage; farmers' efficacy (i.e. perception of their ability to reduce AM usage); support from their veterinarian; and the future reduction potential of AM usage. Additionally, self-reported reduction behaviours, the perceived farmers' barriers to reduce AM usage and relationships with farmers were assessed in the veterinarians' survey. The results showed that farmers and veterinarians had similar perceptions of the risks and benefits of AM usage. Veterinarians appeared to be more optimistic than pig farmers about reducing AM usage in pig farming. Farmers believed that their efficacy over AM reduction was relatively high. Farmers' intention to reduce AM usage and veterinarians' self-reported reduction behaviours were mainly associated with factors concerning the feasibility of reducing AM usage. To promote prudent AM usage, pig farmers should learn and experience how to reduce usage by applying alternative measures, whereas veterinarians should strengthen their advisory role and competencies to support and educate farmers

The prudent use of antimicrobials (AMs) should be widened in pig farming to reduce the risk of AM resistance (AMR) in human and veterinary medicine. It is therefore important to understand pig farmers' motivators and the barriers to AM usage (AMU) on their farms. The authors investigated pig farmers' self-estimated levels of AMU, their perceived benefits and risks and the need for AMs in a cross-sectional survey in Belgium, France, Germany and Sweden. The authors also compared these perceptions between the four countries and related them to pig farmers' actual AMU. The results showed that farmers who used more AMs also estimated their own usage as higher. Farmers perceived many benefits but relatively few risks of AMU in pig farming. Some significant cross-country differences in farmers' perceptions were found, but they were relatively small. After controlling for country differences and farm differences, only perceived risks had a significant association with AMU. The authors therefore conclude that in order to promote prudent AMU, it seems most promising to focus on the structural differences in pig farming and veterinary medicine (e.g. legislation, role of the veterinarian) among countries. In addition, interventions which aim at reducing AMU should increase farmers' awareness of the risks of extensive AMU.

Zusammenfassung Gegenstand und Ziel: Untersuchung der Nachweishäufigkeit viraler und bakterieller Erreger von Reproduktionsstörungen bei Sauen. Material und Methoden: Die Auswertung erfasste Einsendungen von Abortmaterial/ Uterus (n = 714), Serum lebensschwach geborener Ferkel (n = 317), Zervixtupfern (n = 881) sowie Harn- und Geschlechtsorganen (n = 416) zwischen Januar 2006 und Juni 2009. Zum Nachweis von PRRSV, PCV2, PPV, Chlamydia spp. und Leptospira spp. dienten verschiedene PCR-Verfahren, zum Nachweis anderer bakterieller Erreger kulturelle Standardverfahren. Ergebnisse: Bei Abortmaterial/Uterus ergab das PCR-Screening für PCV2 eine Nachweisrate von 14,7% und für PRRSV EU-Genotyp von 6,8%. Andere Erreger ließen sich nur in Einzelfällen nachweisen (PPV: 2,2%, PRRSV US-Genotyp: 1,8%, Chlamydia spp.: 1,0%, Leptospira spp.: 0,8%). Der Nachweis von PCV2 gelang mittels Einzel-PCR signifikant häufiger als mit dem PCR-Screening. Im Vergleich mit Abort- und Uterusproben waren PRRSV und PCV2 aus dem Serum lebensschwach geborener Ferkel signifikant häufiger nachweisbar. Bei der bakteriologischen Untersuchung konnten zwar aus 75% der Zervixtupfer Erreger angezüchtet werden, doch ließ das Keimspektrum bei mehr als der Hälfte dieser Fälle auf eine Kontamination schließen. Bei den Harn- und Geschlechtsorganen war ein bakteriologischer Erregernachweis aus etwa 60% der Proben möglich, der Anteil potenziell kontaminierter Proben lag mit 7,4% aber sehr viel niedriger. Schlussfolgerung: Reproduktionsstörungen sind zu etwa 60-70% nicht primär auf eine Infektionserkrankung zurückzuführen. Bei Verdacht auf eine PPRSV-Infektion sind Serumproben lebensschwacher Saugferkel als Material den Abort- und Uterusproben deutlich überlegen. Die Untersuchung von Feten mittels PCR-Screening ist aufgrund inakzeptabler Nachweisraten nicht zu empfehlen. Die Ursache bakterieller Infektionen des Harn- und Geschlechtsapparates lässt sich an Organmaterial geschlachteter Sauen besser klären als an Zervixtupfern.

The occurrence of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae infections in young pigs was surveyed in a retrospective study of 1122 datasets obtained from routine diagnostics where either suckling or nursery pigs were examined for M hyopneumoniae in lung tissue. Findings were correlated with the presence of lung lesions, detection of other respiratory pathogens, vaccination history and parameters describing the herd of origin. The prevalence of M hyopneumoniae in lung tissue from 201 suckling pigs was 2.0 per cent and, therefore, significantly lower than in lung tissue from 921 nursery pigs, which was 9.3 per cent. Previous use of antimicrobials and the vital status of the pigs when delivered for postmortem examination did not influence the detection of M hyopneumoniae infection. The presence of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV)-EU genotype, Pasteurella multocida, Haemophilus parasuis, Mycoplasma hyorhinis or Streptococcus suis was correlated with a higher probability of also finding M hyopneumoniae. The history of vaccination, the time of the first or second application, and the type of vaccine (one- versus two-shot) did not influence the detection of M hyopneumoniae. A correlation between the type of herd and the presence of M hyopneumoniae was statistically insignificant and no effect of farrowing rhythm could be confirmed.

Summary: Objective: Few studies exist that concentrate on the detection of M. hyopneumoniae by PCR in piglets. Most of these studies do not permit the differentiation of latent infections from infections with typical pathomorphological lesions. The aim of the study was to characterize the occurrence of M. hyopneumoniae infections in piglets by combining and evaluating the results of macroscopical, histological, molecularbiological and immunohistochemical examinations. The evaluation of the suitability of the immunohistochemistry (IHC) as an alternative or as a supplement to other tests was a further aim. The study-design does not allow any conclusions regarding the prevalence of early M. hyo - pneumoniae-infections in piglets. Material and methods: 96 clinically affected piglets from eight pre-selected herds with an increased risk for M. hyopneumoniae infection were chosen for necropsy. Macroscopical and histological examinations of the lungs were performed. BALF and lung tissue were taken for the detection of M. hyopneumoniae by nested PCR (nPCR) and IHC. Results: 16 of 33 nPCR-positive piglets were positive for antigen by IHC while 63 nPCR-negative piglets were also negative for antigen by IHC (kappa index = 0.55). Of the 17 piglets with a nPCR-positive but IHC-negative test result, 12 originated from one herd leading to the assumption that not all field strains were detectable with the monoclonal antibody utilized. Fisher’s exact test showed a significant association (p < 0.0001) between detection of M. hyopneumoniae by nPCR in BALF or by IHC in lung tissue and the occurrence of typical pathological lesions. Conclusion: IHC with the monoclonal antibody used in this study is a suitable additional method but no alternative to the direct detection of M. hyopneumoniae by nPCR. Clinical relevance: In the case of the detection of M. hyopneumoniae in BALF by nPCR, typical pathological lesions can be expected with a higher probability than in nPCR-negative piglets.

Zusammenfassung Gegenstand und Ziel: In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird am Beispiel einer Fehlmischung mit Selen in einem Mischfutter für Schweine dargestellt, welche Aspekte im konkreten Schadensfall hinsichtlich Tierschutz und Lebensmittelsicherheit zu berücksichtigen sind. Material und Methoden: Der Bestand wurde nach einer ausführlichen Anamnese zunächst klinisch untersucht. Weiterführende Untersuchungen erfolgten mit dem Ziel, anzeigepflichtige Tierseuchen auszuschließen und die aufgrund der klinischen Symptome ausgesprochene Verdachtsdia gnose „Selenintoxikation“ zu bestätigen. Tierkörper wurden pathomorphologisch sowie histologisch untersucht. In Blut- sowie Gewebeund Futterproben wurde der Selengehalt bestimmt. Ergebnisse: Insgesamt 751 Läufer- und Mastschweine erhielten ein Mischfutter mit akzidentiell überdosiertem Selen (58,6 mg Se/kg Futter bezogen auf 88% Trockenmasse). Unter der Annahme, dass Selen allein über das Mineralfutter in das Flüssigfutter eingetragen wurde, konnte für das Mineralfutter ein Gehalt von ca. 2,5 g/kg berechnet werden. Da innerhalb von 72 Stunden alle Schweine klinische Symptome einer Erkrankung zeigten oder bereits verendet waren und Aspekte der Lebensmittelsicherheit sowie des Tierschutzes gegen eine Schlachtung sprachen, wurden alle exponierten und noch lebenden Schweine getötet. Schlussfolgerung: In Fällen von Krankheitsausbrüchen wie beispielsweise Intoxikationen, die nicht durch spezifische Rechtsvorschriften geregelt werden, sind bezüglich einer Tötung oder Schlachtung der Tiere neben ökonomischen Interessen der Tierhalter und eventuell dritter Parteien besonders Aspekte des Tierschutzes und der Lebensmittelsicherheit zu berücksichtigen.

Aim To develop and to validate a method for the quantification of Lawsonia intracellularis in porcine faeces by real-time PCR. Methods and results A real-time PCR including a calibrator based on plasmid DNA for quantification by means of DeltaDeltaCt method was evaluated. The parameters specificity, detection limit, quantification limit, linearity, range, repeatability, precision and recovery were validated. The detection limit of the agent was 1 copy per reaction, and quantification was reliable between 10(1) and 10(7) copies per microl reaction volume. The linearity calculated by logistic regression revealed a slope of -3.329 reflecting an efficiency of 99.7% for the assay. Moreover, it was shown that storage of samples and repetition of tests including DNA isolation by same or other investigators did not influence the outcome. Conclusion The quantification method described herein revealed consistent results for the quantitation of L. intracellularis in porcine faeces samples. Significance and impact of the study In contrast to common PCR in combination with gel electrophoresis, this validated quantification method based on real-time PCR enhances a reliable quantification and is even more sensitive.

Zusammenfassung Ziel: Die Untersuchung wurde mit dem Ziel durchgeführt, die Kinetik der Blutantikörperkonzentrationen gegen Mycoplasma (M.) hyopneumoniae post partum (p. p.) vergleichend bei geimpften und ungeimpften Sauen zu beschreiben. Mit der Darstellung der Antikörperkinetik in diesem Zeitabschnitt sollte folgende Frage beantwortet werden: Ist die Blutentnahme bei Sauen, die im Rahmen von Untersuchungen zur Muttertiervakzination häufiger durchgeführt wird, direkt nach der Geburt zwingend notwendig oder kann sie auf einen späteren, für die Sau weniger belastenden Zeitpunkt verschoben werden? Material und Methoden: Die Untersuchungen erfolgten in einer endemisch mit M. hyopneumoniae infizierten Herde an 47 Sauen. Die Tiere der Impfgruppe erhielten 6 und 3 Wochen ante partum (a. p.) eine Injektion von Ingelvac® M. hyo, die Sauen der Kontrollgruppe eine Injektion physiologischer Kochsalzlösung. Für die Untersuchung der Antikörperkinetik erfolgte bei allen Sauen 6 und 3 Wochen a. p. sowie am 1., 3. und 5. Tag p. p. eine Blutentnahme. Die Proben wurden mittels ELISA-Verfahren auf Serumantikörper gegen M. hyopneumoniae untersucht. Ergebnisse: Die Impfung mit Ingelvac® M. hyo induzierte im Zeitraum zwischen 6 und 3 Wochen vor der Geburt einen ausgeprägten Anstieg der Antikörperkonzentrationen im Serum, die anschließend konstant blieben. Bei den ungeimpften Sauen war dagegen im Zeitraum 3 Wochen a. p. bis 1 Tag p. p. ein Rückgang der Serumantikörperkonzentrationen nachweisbar. Entsprechend der Impfanamnese konnten bei den Sauen auch in den Tagen nach der Geburt unterschiedliche Antikörperkonzentrationen festgestellt werden. Innerhalb der Behandlungsgruppen ergab der Vergleich der S/P-Werte von Proben, die 1 und 3 Tage p. p. entnommen worden waren, keinen Unterschied, während der Vergleich mit 5 Tage p. p. entnommen Proben signifikante Unterschiede zeigte. Schlussfolgerung: Die Konzentration von Serumantikörpern gegen M. hyopneumoniae war während der ersten 3 Tage nach dem Abferkeln weitgehend konstant. Die Entnahme von Blutproben direkt nach der Geburt, die zur Untersuchung der Antikörperkinetik nach Muttertiervakzination häufig durchgeführt wird, kann daher auf den 2. oder 3. Tag p. p. verschoben werden.

Zusammenfassung Gegenstand: Untersuchung der Effektivität von One-shot-Impfungen gegen Mycoplasma (M.) hyopneumoniae in Abhängigkeit von Impfzeitpunkt und Impfstatus der Sauen, ferner Verfolgung der serologischen Reaktion auf die Impfung resp. Infektion in einer Verlaufsuntersuchung. Material und Methoden: Für den Doppelblindversuch wurden fünf aufeinanderfolgende Abferkelgruppen mit jeweils 21 Sauen 6 Wochen ante partum (a. p.) zufällig drei gleich großen Gruppen (K, I, A) zugeteilt. Tiere der Gruppen „I” und „A” erhielten 6 und 3 Wochen a. p. eine Injektion des Impfstoffs Ingelvac® M. hyo resp. des Impfstoffs A”, Sauen der Kontrollgruppe „K” physiologische Kochsalzlösung. Ferkel der Sauen aus Gruppe I und K wurden zufällig drei Gruppen zugeordnet und erhielten in der 3. resp. 6. Lebenswoche (LW) Ingelvac® M. hyo (Behandlungsgruppen 2, 3, 5, 6) oder in der 3. LW phys. Kochsalzlösung (Behandlungsgruppen 1 und 4). Den Ferkeln der mit „Impfstoff A” vakzinierten Sauen wurde in der 1. oder 3. LW „Impfstoff A” (Behandlungsgruppe 8 und 9) oder in der 3. LW phys. Kochsalzlösung injiziert (Behandlungsgruppe 7). Für die serologische Verlaufsuntersuchung wurden den Ferkeln zwischen der 3. und 21. LW in regelmäßigen Abständen Blutproben entnommen und mittels eines indirekten ELISA auf Antikörper gegen M. hyopneumoniae untersucht. Die Effektivität der Impfungen wurde anhand des Zuwachses (kg) und dem Vorkommen typischer Lungenveränderungen zum Zeitpunkt der Schlachtung bewertet. Ergebnisse: Die in der 6. LW mit Ingelvac® M. hyo geimpften Ferkel von geimpften Sauen hatten den höchsten Zuwachs, wobei sich die Unterschiede zu den anderen mit Ingelvac® M. hyo geimpften Schweinen statistisch nicht absichern ließen. Die mit „Impfstoff A” geimpften Ferkel zeigten im Vergleich zu den in der 6. LW mit Ingelvac® M. hyo geimpften Ferkeln geimpfter Sauen einen statistisch signifikant geringeren Zuwachs und häufiger ausgeprägte Lungenveränderungen. Schlussfolgerung: Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass mit der Anwendung von Ingelvac® M. hyo bei Sauen 3 und 6 Wochen a. p. und deren Ferkel in der 6. LW eine Leistungssteigerung zu erreichen war.

Zusammenfassung Gegenstand und Ziel: Die visuelle Beurteilung der Lungen von Mastschweinen nach der Schlachtung ist eine Methode der Bestandsdiagnostik, die pathologische und ätiologische Untersuchungen ergänzt und hauptsächlich zur Schätzung von Prävalenz und Ausmaß von Lungenveränderungen durchgeführt wird. Die korrekte Bewertung setzt voraus, dass krankheitsbedingte Veränderungen richtig von Artefakten differenziert werden, die durch den Schlachtprozess verursacht sind. Die vorliegende Untersuchung wurde mit dem Ziel durchgeführt, Lungenveränderungen, die nicht den bekannten Läsionen zugeordnet werden können, morphologisch und histologisch zu charakterisieren. Material und Methoden: In drei Schlachtbetrieben mit unterschiedlichen Betäubungs- (Elektrozange, CO2) und Brühverfahren (Trog, Tunnel) wurden jeweils 100 Schweine untersucht und auffällige Lungen von je acht Schweinen entnommen. Veränderte Lokalisationen wurden makroskopisch und mit histologischen Standardverfahren untersucht. Ergebnisse: Grundsätzlich ließen sich drei verschiedene Arten von schlachtungsbedingten Artefakten feststellen. Flächige, rote bis rot-blaue Verfärbungen des Lungenparenchyms der Haupt- und Spitzenlappen konnten histopathologisch als Atelektasen bewertet werden. Die Aspiration von Blut führt zu petechienartigen Veränderungen, die häufig an den Spitzenlappen zu sehen sind. Bei der Trogbrühung kann die Aspiration größerer Mengen von Brühwasser zu einer grau bis grau-braunen Verfärbungen der Lungenoberfläche führen. Schlussfolgerung: Die Erhebung von Lungenbefunden nach der Schlachtung zur Prävalenzschätzung bestimmter pneumonischer Veränderungen setzt eine korrekte Unterscheidung entzündlicher Lungenveränderungen von schlachtungsbedingten Artefakten voraus. Eine Differenzierung ist anhand des Palpationsbefundes und der Beurteilung der Schnittfläche weitgehend möglich.

There is a lack of information about the prevalence and origins of the important zoonotic pathogen Campylobacter spp. in the different stages of the pig production chain. The aim of this study was to gather further information about the sources of infection with Campylobacter spp. and their qualitative and quantitative importance in pig production. For statistical analysis, 1,040 results from the bacteriological examination for Campylobacter spp. were evaluated with questionnaires from four farrowing and twelve fattening units. The prevalence was determined via faeces and swab samples with regard to certain farm production parameters. Thereby 30.8% of the sows and 80.9% of their piglets were carriers of Campylobacter spp.. In the fattening unit, the prevalence at the beginning of the fattening period was 89.2% and at the end 64.7%. As a result of the small sample size in the farrowing unit it was not possible to perform a risk analysis which yielded significant conclusions. In the fattening stage, the following risk factors had a significant effect (p≤0.05) on Campylobacter spp. prevalence: sampling time, number of fattening places per herd, mixed farming, floor space design, feed origin, antibacterial and anthelmintic treatment. These results show that housing and management have a possible influence on the Campylobacter spp. prevalence and should be investigated further.

In the present study, ocular chlamydial infections in pigs that originate from two different farming systems were investigated. In particular, the aim was to test pigs with and without clinical ocular symptoms for the presence of Chlamydiaceae and for linked infections with Acanthamoebae spp. possibly acting as vectors for Chlamydia or Chlamydia-like organisms. In a total of 181 pigs, 102 from Germany (GER), representing the intensively kept animals and 79 from Switzerland (CH), which were kept extensively, were screened for the presence of different pathogens by PCR, including a new Chlamydiaceae-specific intergenic spacer rRNA gene PCR. Additionally, results of clinical examination and cytology were compared between the symptomatic and asymptomatic pigs of the two groups. Ocular symptomatic pigs showed a high prevalence of Chlamydia suis in both groups: CH 79%, GER 90%. Only 23% asymptomatic pigs from CH, but 88% asymptomatic pigs from GER were positive for C. suis by PCR. DNA of Chlamydia-like organisms were detected in 19% CH, but only in 2% GER pigs, whereas only 4% CH and 1% GER pigs were also positive for Acanthamoebae spp. A co-infection of Acanthamoebae spp. and C. suis was present in only 3% of the CH but 28% of the GER pigs. In general, the intensively kept pigs in our study seemed to be pre-disposed to ocular chlamydial infection and associated conjunctivitis. Infections with Chlamydia-like organisms alone and in combination with Acanthamoebae played no role for clinical findings within the tested pig groups, whereas a co-infection of Acanthamoebae and C. suis was able to cause serious ocular manifestations in half of the cases of intensively kept pigs being positive for these microorganisms.

Zusammenfassung: Gegenstand und Ziel: In einem Ferkelerzeugerbestand kam es ein Jahr nach der Erneuerung des Bodenbelags in den Abferkelbuchten bei den Saugferkeln zu Bewegungsstörungen sowie Hautnekrosen im Bereich von Schwanz und Gliedmaßen. Bei einigen Tieren fielen zusätzlich Ödeme im Bereich der seitlichen Brustwand auf. Die Krankheitsanzeichen traten etwa ab dem zweiten Lebenstag auf. Die durchschnittliche Saugferkelmortalität betrug 22,7%. Der Tierhalter vermutete, dass der als Bodenbelag verwendete Flüssigasphalt Ursache einer Intoxikation war. Material und Methoden: Saugferkel im Alter von etwa drei und 10 Tagen wurden einer klinischen Untersuchung unterzogen. Bei vier dieser Ferkel erfolgte eine pathologisch-anatomische und histopathologische Untersuchung. Der Bodenbelag wurde einer genauen Inspektion unterzogen. Ergebnisse: Die klinische Untersuchung ergab einen ausgeprägten Abrieb des Klauenhorns und Läsionen im Bereich des Kronsaums. Über den Fessel- und Karpalgelenken fielen hochgradige Hauterosionen sowie teils großflächige Perforationen der Haut auf. Hauterosionen und -nekrosen waren zudem am Kinnwinkel und der Oberseite des Schwanzes sowie bilateral auf der Unterseite der Ellbogengelenke, an den ersten Zitzenpaaren und der Unterseite der Tarsi festzustellen. Einige Ferkel wiesen eine stark ödematisierte und blutige Vulva auf. Schlussfolgerung: Die Bewegungsstörungen waren Folge einer Technopathie, die durch einen – infolge intensiver Reinigung mit einem Hochdruckreiniger – stark aufgerauten Bodenbelag sowie Gussroste mit runder Trittfläche entstand. Klinische Relevanz: Technopathien können durch intensive Untersuchungen der Tiere und Tierumgebung erkannt und durch pathomorphologische Untersuchungen abgesichert werden.

Zusammenfassung: Gegenstand und Ziel: In einem Mastbestand trat in einer Gruppe von etwa 200 Läuferschweinen bei 15–20% der Tiere Diarrhö auf. In einer ersten Untersuchung von zwei Analtupfern auf darmpathogene Infektionserreger konnte die Ätiologie nicht geklärt werden. Material und Methoden: Zehn Kotproben wurden mittels einer Multiplex-PCR auf spezifische Genomfragmente von Lawsonia intracellularis, Brachyspira (B.) hyodysenteriae und B. pilosicoli untersucht. Der Gehalt an Salmonella spp. und hämolysierenden Escherichia coli wurde mittels bakteriologischer Standardverfahren geprüft. Ergebnisse: In vier von zehn Kotproben konnte Lawsonia intracellularis nachgewiesen werden. Andere Enteritiserreger wurden nicht detektiert. Schlussfolgerung: Die Diarrhö im Mastbestand konnte auf eine Infektion mit Lawsonia intracellularis zurückgeführt werden. Klinische Relevanz: Zum Nachweis einer Infektionskrankheit in Herden muss stets eine ausreichende Anzahl Tiere untersucht werden. Für den Nachweis von Lawsonia intracellularis mittels PCR eignen sich Kot- und Schleimhautproben; Analtupfer sind ungeeignet.

International audience; We conducted a survey among convenient samples of pig farmers (N=281) in Belgium, France, Germany, Sweden and Switzerland. We identified some significant differences among the five investigated countries (independent variable) regarding farmers' antimicrobial usage compared to their own country and worries related to pig farming (dependent variables), but most of the differences were rather small. In general, farmers perceived their own antimicrobial usage to be lower than that of their peers in the same country and lower than or similar to that of farmers from other countries. This may be a consequence of our convenience sample, resulting in self-selection of highly motivated farmers. Farmers were significantly more worried about financial/legal issues than about antimicrobial resistance. They believed that a reduction in revenues for slaughter pigs treated with a large amount of antimicrobials would have the most impact on reduced antimicrobial usage in their country. Further, farmers who were more worried about antimicrobial resistance and who estimated their own antimicrobial usage as lower than their fellow countrymen, perceived more impact from policy measures on the reduction of antimicrobials. Our results indicated that the same policy measures can be applied to reduce antimicrobial usage in pig farming in all five countries. Moreover, it seems worthwhile to increase pig farmers' awareness of the threat of antimicrobial resistance and its relation to antimicrobial usage; not only because pig farmers appeared little worried about antimicrobial usage but also because it affected farmers' perception of policy measures to reduce antimicrobial usage. Our samples were not representative for the national pig farmer populations. Further research is therefore needed to examine to what extent our findings can be generalised to these populations and to farmers in other countries.

Zusammenfassung:In der Literaturübersicht ist der Stand des Wissens zu Verlauf und Diagnostik der PRRSV-Infektion bei Ebern zusammengefasst. Außerdem wird auf die Möglichkeiten eingegangen, das Risiko des Erregereintrags in Sauenherden zu reduzieren. Die PRRSV-Infektion kann bei Ebern zu einer zeitlich begrenzten Beeinträchtigung der Spermaqualität und der Erregerübertragung auf die Sau führen. PRRSV-freie Sauenherden sind durch den Bezug von Sperma aus PRRSV-freien Besamungsstationen zu schützen. Um den Eintrag neuer PRRSV-Stämme in bereits infizierte Sauenherden zu vermeiden, empfiehlt es sich aber, auch für diese Herden Sperma nur aus PRRSV-freier Herkunft zu beziehen. PRRSV-freie Besamungsstationen sollten mit Ferkeln aus PRRSV-freien Zuchtbeständen aufgebaut werden. Der Status der Besamungsstationen ist in zweiwöchigen Intervallen zu prüfen. Für die Diagnostik empfiehlt sich eine Kombination aus ELISA- und PCR-Verfahren, die an Serumproben durchgeführt werden.

Zusammenfassung Ziel: Anhand von Verlaufsuntersuchungen sollte gezeigt werden, wie sich der Serostatus von Schweinen interpretieren lässt, die nach verschiedenen Schemata gegen M. hyopneumoniae geimpft wurden. Material und Methoden: Untersuchung A: 186 Ferkel aus drei Erzeugerbetrieben wurden zufällig drei Behandlungsgruppen zugeteilt und in der 1. und 4. Lebenswoche (LW) resp. der 4. und 8. LW mit Hyoresp ® geimpft. Die Kontrollgruppe erhielt in der 1. und 4. LW physiologische Kochsalzlösung. Für die serologische Verlaufsuntersuchung wurde zwischen der 1. und 20. LW in vierwöchigen Intervallen Blut entnommen. Untersuchung B: In zwei Ferkelerzeugerbeständen wurden jeweils 180 Ferkel zufällig drei Behandlungsgruppen zugeordnet und einmalig in der 4. Woche mit Ingelvac® M.hyo bzw. in der 1. und 4. Woche mit Stellamune® geimpft. Die Kontrollgruppe erhielt in der 1. und 4. LW physiologische Kochsalzlösung. Die Blutprobenentnahme erfolgte zwischen der 4. und 24. LW. Die serologischen Untersuchungen wurden mittels eines indirekten Tween-20-ELISA durchgeführt. Ergebnisse: Während der ersten Lebenswochen waren überwiegend maternale Antikörper mit Prävalenzen um 0,8 (1. LW) und 0,45 bis 0,6 (4. LW) nachzuweisen. Die in der 1. und 4. resp. nur in der 4. LW geimpften Ferkel ließen in der 8. LW mit Prävalenzen zwischen 0,35 und 0,42 nur kurzzeitig eine Reaktion auf die Impfung erkennen. Bereits in der 12. LW waren zwischen den früh geimpften Ferkeln und den nicht geimpften Kontrolltieren keine Differenzen mehr feststellbar. Die Impfung konnte eine Infektion mit M. hyopneumoniae während der Mast nicht sicher verhindern. Bei geimpften Schweinen führt die Infektion zu einer merklich schnelleren und prägnanteren Reaktion, sodass die Seroprävalenz innerhalb von wenigen Wochen auf 0,8, bei den nicht geimpften Kontrolltieren aber nur auf 0,35 anstieg. Bei der Interpretation serologischer Befunde ist der Impfstatus daher unbedingt zu berücksichtigen. Schlussfolgerung: Die frühe Impfung lässt sich bei Läuferschweinen anhand serologischer Standardmethoden weder nachweisen noch ausschließen, was bei der Erstellung forensischer Gutachten zu berücksichtigen ist.

Zusammenfassung Gegenstand und Ziel: Die vorliegende Untersuchung wurde durchgeführt, um die Salmonella-Seroprävalenzen in unterschiedlichen Haltungssystemen zu ermitteln sowie produktionsspezifische Risikofaktoren aufzudecken und hinsichtlich ihrer qualitativen und quantitativen Bedeutung zu analysieren. Material und Methoden: In 78 konventionellen, 17 ökologischen und 13 Freilandbetrieben wurden insgesamt 4343 Blutproben entnommen und mithilfe des SALMOTYPE® Fleischsaft-ELISA serologisch untersucht (Cut-off von 40). Mit dem Ziel einer Risikoanalyse wurden die mithilfe eines Fragebogens erfassten bestandsspezifischen Parameter aus konventionellen Betrieben und Freilandbetrieben zusammen mit den Ergebnissen der serologischen Untersuchung statistisch ausgewertet. Ergebnisse: Für 1498 Sauen aus 63 Ferkelerzeuger- und Kombibetrieben ergab sich unabhängig von der Haltungsform eine Seroprävalenz von 17,1%. Insgesamt reagierten 12,3% der Sauen aus 39 konventionellen Betrieben, 7,6% der Sauen aus neun ökologischen Betrieben und 35,1% der Sauen aus den Freilandbetrieben im ELISA positiv. In den Mastbetrieben zeigten insgesamt 301 (11,4%) der 2642 Proben einen seropositiven Befund. Für die 43 konventionellen Herden konnte eine Seroprävalenz von 13% und für die 12 ökologisch wirtschaftenden Betriebe eine Seroprävalenz von 1,9% ermittelt werden. Ein signifikanter Einfluss auf den Anstieg der Seroprävalenz bei Sauen aus konventionellen Haltungssystemen bestand für folgende Faktoren: Eingliederung von Jungsauen ohne vorherige Aufstallung in einen Quarantänestall, Betreuung des Bestandes durch weniger als drei Personen, Auslaufoder Offenstallhaltungen, Einrichtung einer Hygieneschleuse. Für Mastschweine aus konventionellen Haltungssystemen ergab eine regelmäßig oder gelegentlich durchgeführte Einstallungsbehandlung, die Haltung auf Teilspaltenböden, die Fütterung mit Granulat, eine fehlende Reinigung der Fütterungsanlage sowie die Lage in betriebsdichten Regionen eine signifikante Erhöhung der Seroprävalenz. In Freilandbetrieben erhöhten insbesondere eine zunehmende Intensität des Schadnager- und Vogelvorkommens sowie die abnehmende Frequenz des Flächenwechsels die Seroprävalenz. Dieses Ergebnis stützt die Annahme, dass der stetige Kontakte zur Außenwelt ein erhöhtes Infektionsrisiko darstellt und für die höheren Seroprävalenzen in der Freilandhaltung verantwortlich ist. Schlussfolgerung: Bei der Salmonellen-Bekämpfung sind für jede Haltungsform besondere Risikofaktoren zu berücksichtigen.

We compared immunogenicity in pigs of whole cell lysate proteins (WCP) with murein-associated proteins (MAP) obtained from a virulent serotype 2 strain of Streptococcus (S.) suis grown at 32 or 42 degrees C. Protein fractions were tested for their ability to induce antibodies in 3-week-old piglets by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and Western blot analysis. We found a significant increase in the antibody levels in all sera irrespective of the preparation used for immunization. However, alpha-WCP sera showed higher reactivities than alpha-MAP sera, and piglets immunized with 32 degrees C preparations (alpha-32 sera) showed higher responses than those immunized with 42 degrees C preparations (alpha-42 sera). Western blot analysis revealed that alpha-WCP sera in part reacted with different proteins when compared with alpha-MAP sera. Furthermore, some proteins were only detected by alpha-32 but not by alpha-42 sera. In conclusion, the results demonstrate the immunogenicity of cell wall MAP of S. suis, and highlight the importance of considering growth conditions in the preparation of subunit vaccines.

SummaryObjective: The aim of this field study was to explore the occurrence of and factors associated with the detection of swine influenza virus (SIV) by RTqPCR in weaner pigs and sows from herds with a history of respiratory or reproductive disorders. Material and methods: The sample set was based on nasal swabs from 823 sows (123 submissions) and 562 weaner pigs (80 submissions). Nasal swab samples were taken and submitted by 51 veterinary practices from all over Germany. Corresponding to the pig density most of the submissions ori ginated from the north-western part of Germany. The nasal swabs were used to detect SIV RNA by real-time RT-PCR (RTqPCR). Subtyping of SIV RNA by conventional RT-PCR and sequencing was attempted directly from clinical samples or from isolates when available. The herd characteristics, management and housing conditions of the pig herd as well as the course of the disease were collected by a telephone questionnaire with the herd attending veterinarian. Results: SIV was detected by RTqPCR in 53.8% of the submissions from weaner pigs with a history of respiratory disease. Moreover SIV was detected in 10.6% of the submissions from sows. The predominant endemic subtype found in nasal swabs from sows and weaner pigs was H1N1 (60.5%) whereas subtypes H1N2 (14.0%) and H3N2 (14.0%) were detected less frequently. In addition, human pandemic H1N1 virus or reassortants thereof were found in 11.5%. Conclusion and clinical relevance: The results underline the significance of a SIV infection in young pigs. A significant lower detection of SIV in weaner pigs was associated with the vaccination of piglets against porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), possibly indicating an interaction of SIV and PCV2. Most of the positive samples from sows originated from gilts, whereas only two originated from sows. An association between reproductive disorders and the detection of SIV could not be confirmed.

Serological testing of blood samples is commonly known as an approved method to diagnose infectious diseases. Likewise it is used for monitoring infectious diseases as it is fast and cost-effective. Nevertheless interpretation of results can be difficult, especially when the samples were taken from animals, which received a vaccination prior to the serological examination. This is mainly due to the fact, that not every vaccination induces a measurable antibody reaction. In this recent case gilts were vaccinated with an attenuated live vaccine and the serum samples were negative in the ELISA. The question aroused which serological reaction to a vaccine is expected under field conditions.In order to clarify this question a group of 28 gilts negative for porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) virus (from a verifiable PRRSV-negative stock) were vaccinated with an attenuated PRRSV vaccine and blood samples were taken on days 0, 2, 4, 8 and 15 post vaccinationem (p. vacc). To provide a reliable means of diagnosis the samples were tested with an antibody ELISA and RT-PCR.A replication of the vaccine virus was demonstrated via RT-PCR in 100% of the animals 4 days p. vacc. The first samples classified positive in the ELISA were detected 8 days p. vacc. On day 15 p. vacc. a positive serological result was obtained for all animals.The vaccination with an attenuated PRRSV vaccine provides a pronounced antibody reaction under field conditions. In case of a negative serological reaction in recently vaccinated pigs all steps from the manufacturing process through to the implementation of the vaccine have to be critically evaluated. Likewise correct laboratory studies and the assessment of diagnostic results need to be scrutinized.

The aim of the present study was to identify potential risk factors for the occurrence of enzootic pneumonia (EP) in herds situated in a region of high pig density, where a majority of herds is endemically infected with Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae. Between 2006 and 2010, overall 100 herds were enrolled in a case-control study. Data were collected through personal interview with the farmers, clinical examination of pigs and their environments, and serological testing for M. hyopneumoniae, swine influenza virus and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. There were 40 case herds (coughing index high, seroprevalence high) with a mean coughing index of 4.3 and a seroprevalence of 86.6%. There were two control groups. Control group I consisted of 25 herds (coughing index low, seroprevalence low) with mean values of 0.7 and 11.2%, and 35 herds were allocated to control group II (coughing index low, seroprevalence high) where the mean coughing index was 0.9 and seroprevalence 86.3%. Case herds and control II herds had an increased age of piglets at weaning compared to control I herds. Any contact between fattening pigs of different age during restocking of compartments increased the risk for the occurrence of EP in a herd. Finally, farms that use living animals for the exposure to gilts during the acclimatization and farms that had increased number of weaned piglets per sow and year were less likely to test positive for M. hyopneumoniae and less likely to develop clinical symptoms of EP in fattening pigs.

On a piglet producing farm severe lameness was observed in pigs which had been weaned 3 weeks and longer due to severe distortions of joints and claws of fore and/or hind legs. Splaying of claws as well as flexural limb deformations particularly in the carpal joints increased in degree the older and heavier the pigs were. Because of coughing in the weaners, which had started 7-8 weeks before any lameness or limb deformation had been apparent, tetracycline was applied via water as medication. During the course of an on-site investigation, a miscalculation of dosage - 129-168 mg tetracycline per kg body weight - was revealed. It was therefore suggested to the farmer and his veterinarian to immediately stop the application of tetracycline and to use a different antibiotic against the still present coughing and sneezing. During a follow-up evaluation 4 weeks later, the farmer reported a significant decrease in affected animals. While a direct correlation between the lameness in the weaned pigs and the tetracycline dosage could not be proven, the existing evidence supports the theory that the overdosage was at least a contributing factor.