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As a decision aid for discrete multicriteria decision problems, this paper proposes a multilevel graph of alternatives to represent the ranking, to the extent that this is possible when incomplete information on weights is available under the assumption of the additive value function. To construct it, the nested decomposition of the set of alternatives is established along the lines of data envelopment analysis (DEA). A numerical example is given to illustrate a multilevel graph based on the nested decomposition and compare it with the hierarchical dominance graph based on dominance relations proposed by Park and Kim.

Magnetic coupling between a SQUID and wires in an integrated circuit has been studied. Using test integrated circuits, the coupling is measured by varying the distance from the SQUID to each wire. The coupling between the SQUID and the wires with and without a groundplane decreases with an increase in the distance. The coupling for the wires with the groundplane is smaller than that for the wires without the groundplane at distances less than 595 /spl mu/m. However, the rate of the decrease in the coupling for the wires with the groundplane falls off for distances more than 595 /spl mu/m and the coupling converges to around 2.9 pH. From two dimensional simulations for the magnetic flux coupling, the origin of the residual inductance is found to be the coupling between the SQUID, and shielding current in the groundplane. The value of the distance, 595 /spl mu/m, does not depend on the size of the SQUID. To decrease the coupling, the use of wires with stripline structure or coplanar structure is desirable.

Operation of a Josephson comparator for analog-to-digital conversion of signal from a SQUID is studied. In the study, a test circuit consisting of the SQUID and the comparator is used. The measured result shows that the comparator responds to AC noise due to the AC Josephson effect. Numerical simulation shows amplitude, which is determined from the response of the comparator, is smaller than the original AC noise amplitude. The difference comes from low-pass characteristics of the Josephson junction in the comparator due to the turn-on delay. The delay is effective in reducing the AC noise, and provides a means for the accurate conversion. >

VLSI reliability issues such as hot-carrier effects, dielectrics and metallization, are reviewed and discussed. VLSIS have been developed mainly with continued reliability in mind. However, a new challenging approach to VLSI reliability is now greatly needed in response to the 'paradigm shift' now being brought about by simple scaling limitations, increased process complexity and VLSI application to advanced systems. A good example of this shift is the new movement from simple failure analysis by sampling the output of a manufacturing line to the 'building-in-reliability' approach. To pursue this technique, greater importance will be attached to a deeper physical understanding (including frequent use of CAD/DA) of the significant relationships between the input variables and product reliability, and to total concurrent engineering from research labs to production sites. Furthermore, fast new VLSI testing methods and new yield-enhancing redundancy techniques, resulting in cost reduction, will be increasingly needed to achieve high reliability for VLSIS with 109 devices on a single chip. This review aims at understanding the physics underlying important reliability problems: hot-carrier effects in scaled MOSFETs, dielectrics in the insulator and electro/stress migration in the interconnection.

Mechanical stress related hot-carrier effects are investigated experimentally by imposing mechanical stress on the Si chip and analytically by using a three-dimensional simulator. The main viewpoints are: (i) applied stress direction dependence, (ii) device scaling, and (iii) degradation mechanisms. The generation of surface states by hot carrier is found to decrease under compressive stress, while Vth shift is enhanced. Consequently, mechanical stress might cause the variation of bond length of Si-O, Si-OH, Si-H, resulting in the enhancement of electron trapping efficiency. In terms of scalability, mechanical stress-induced hot-carrier effect becomes less with scaling of the channel length, L which coincides with the simulated mechanical stress sigma x which decreases as L is reduced. This is probably due to a spreading effect of localized stress at the gate edge for scaled MOS devices, and will be a positive effect for lateral device scaling. Thus, the mechanical stress was found to influence differently on carrier trapping and Nss generation. From now on, reliability problems such as TDDB, junction leaks and so forth will have to be re-examined as mechanical stress-related phenomena, which will lead to the realization of more reliable ULSIS.

The hot-carrier degradation mechanism in PMOSFETs (p-channel metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors) is studied for three transistor types over ten orders of magnitude in time. The authors observe oxide charge and interface states separately by charge pumping. Degradation for various gate lengths at many gate and drain voltages is measured and interpreted consistently. Negative oxide charge and interface states are generated by electrons near the drain. This charge attracts an inversion layer that extends the drain and reduces the effective transistor length logarithmically in time, simultaneously preventing degradation of the transistor operation by the generated interface states. However, holes may generate interface states outside the drain extension, decreasing the transconductance with a power of time.

We fabricated a one-dimensional magnetophotonic crystal (MPC), in which a magnetic layer of Co–ferrite (∼40 nm in thickness) is sandwiched by a couple of dielectric multilayer reflectors with (SiO2/TiO2)×7 structure. The Co–ferrite layer was synthesized by ferrite plating from aqueous solution at 90 °C. The MPC is so designed to enhance magneto-optical Faraday rotation θF at the Fabry–Perot resonance wavelength λ of the multilayer structure. θF was observed to increase by factor of ∼5.4, but at λ=∼620 nm which is deviated from the target resonance (λ=740 nm) and at very weak transmissivity. This may be because the Co–ferrite layer is rough in surface and smaller in thickness than the target thickness at which Fabry–Perot resonance is designed to occur.

Introduction: Lithography simulation has traditionally treated resists as materials with continuously varying inhomogeneous properties (such as local absorbed energy). Additionally, the resist surface is considered smooth before, during and after development [ 11. Occasionally, cell-removal algorithms were employed but only as a means to implement dissolution models, with the result sometimes followed by a graphical surface smoothing operation [2]. However, as linewidths decrease below 200nm, exposure fluctuation and resist roughness take on dimensions comparable to feature sizes [3]. A few cell-based simulators have considered exposure induced roughness in X-ray lithography [4] and ion induced roughness in plasma etching [SI. However, a new simulation paradigm is still required to further model nanometer-scale variations in advanced lithography, both as a means to better understand the underlying physical processes and to provide a tool for lithography process design. We present HIACINTH (HItachi's Algorithms for Calculation of IC Nano-process TecHnologies) as a means towards these goals.

The key player in proximal tubular Pi reabsorption, the type IIa Na(+)/Pi co-transporter, is internalized upon PTH treatment and degraded in the lysosomes. PTH action is initiated by apically and basolaterally localized PTH receptors, whereby apical effects are most probably via cAMP-independent (via PKC) and basolateral effects via cAMP-dependent (via PKA) regulatory mechanisms. The molecular determinants at the level of the transporter protein or at the level of interacting (regulatory) proteins are not yet known.

The development of silicon technology is opening the new era of "systems on silicon". That is, a large-scale memory will be integrated with a CPU and other logic macros. These kinds of chips, so-called system LSIs, have a promising future, especially in mobile systems for advanced multimedia applications since they feature high data-transfer rate, low I/O power dissipation, and system miniaturization. However, such a system-oriented LSI causes new technical problems such as increases in subthreshold leakage current, process cost, and design complexity. It will also have a significant influence on the business strategies of LSI makers. This paper reviews the features and issues of embedded DRAMs and system LSIs and then introduces advanced technologies for designing and fabricating them.

Conical beam concentric array radial slot line antennas (RSLA) have been fabricated for the 60 GHz band. A PTFE substrate with copper foils is used. The coaxial feeder has been modified to improve the reflection. The measured reflection has revealed that the -15 dB bandwidth is about 500 MHz around the design frequency. The bandwidth of the gain has also improved because of the feeder modification.

In this paper, we fabricate a conical beam small aperture radial line slot antenna (RLSA) for a 60-GHz band wireless LAN. Measured results are also shown for demonstrating the feasibility.

Discusses the design and fabrication of a concentric array radial line slot antenna for high speed wireless LAN applications in the 60 GHz band. Radiation patterns and gain are calculated. Calculations of the performance are also discussed.

With the arrival of the multimedia era, high-data-rate memory LSIs are becoming increasingly important to keep up with high-speed CPUs, graphics processors, and other consumers of stored data. Video editing and replaying of high-definition television in particular require a high bandwidth. This paper presents two circuit technologies for a synchronously operating high-data-rate 1 Gb DRAM: a distributed-column-control architecture reducing the burst-mode cycle time, and a ringing-canceling output buffer ensuring reliable high-speed data transfer.

At hospitals, patients with tuberculosis are attended by several professionals and among them nursing workers. These workers are subjected to the risk of the tuberculosis infection. This study had the objective of investigating the number of nursing workers in a hospital that acquired tuberculosis in a pre-determined period and their general characteristics; to calculate the morbidity coefficient of this disease and discuss the occupational risk among these workers. In one year, health workers presented 3.86 times greater risk, and, in another year, 1.47 times greater risk. In the present study tuberculosis was considered an occupational hazard for hospital nursing workers.

In view of a cytoprotective effect of elastase inhibitor on chemokine-mediated tissue injury, we examined the neuroprotective effect of ONO-5046, a specific inhibitor of neutrophil elastase, in rats with spinal cord injury. Standardized spinal cord compression markedly increased cytokine-induced neutrophil chemo-attractant (CINC)-1 mRNA and protein. Their increases correlated with neurologic severity of injured rats. Immunohistochemically, CINC-1 protein was detected sequentially in vascular endothelial cells at 4 h, in perivascular neutrophils at 8 h, and in neutrophils infiltrating into cord substance at 12 h. Pretreatment with ONO-5046 (50 mg/kg) markedly ameliorated motor disturbance in injured rats, and reduced CINC-1 protein and mRNA expression. ONO-5046 also significantly reduced the increase of neutrophil accumulation or infiltration estimated by myeloperoxidase activity, and the extent of vascular permeability by Evans blue extravasation in the injured cord segment in comparison to control animals receiving vehicle. These results suggest that CINC-1 contributed to inflammation in rat spinal cord injury and ONO-5046 attenuated neurologic damage partly by blocking CINC-1 production of the chemoattractant, preventing neutrophil activation and vascular endothelial cell injury.

Action of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, the most active metabolite of vitamin D, is exerted by the nuclear vitamin D receptor (VDR) mediated gene expression. Toward the expression of vitamin D function, several steps including 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D production, tissue specific expression of VDR and transcription of target gene by VDR are involved. One of the important progress in vitamin D metabolism is the cloning of 25-hydroxyvitamin D-24-hydroxylase gene and 1 alpha-hydroxylase gene. Structural organization of the human VDR chromosomal gene and its promoter was also important to understand the amount of VDR expressed in tissues. A part of mechanism of tissue specific expression of VDR have recently been reported. Furthermore, VDR recruit several coactivators to achieve vitamin D-induced transactivation. Selective coactivator interaction with VDR may specify the array of biological actions of vitamin D.

The STR structure of the D8S580 locus was analyzed by the base sequencing technique. Alleles were collected separately by urea denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of the PCR amplification product, followed by cutting of the target DNA band from the gel, and reamplification. As a result, this locus was shown to have a complex STR structure consisting of four types of repeat units, i.e. GGAA (II), GAAA (III), GAAAA (IV), and GCAA (V). Of 53 unrelated Japanese individuals, 51 were heterozygous, and the most frequent allele was type IV 8-II 7 III 6 III 3 (16%). Forty-four alleles with distinct structures appeared once the samples tested. As 57 different alleles were detected in this study, this region is considered to be one of the locus that have a high degree of repetitive structural polymorphism and therefore useful in forensic science.

We analysed the gene of the human alpha-subunit of liver phosphorylase kinase (PHKA2) in four Japanese families with X-linked liver phosphorylase kinase deficiency type 1 by RT-PCR followed by PCR-single-strand conformation polymorphism and direct DNA sequencing. In this study, two novel mutations (Y116D and 2675A--G) and one mutation previously reported (P1205L) were identified, revealing molecular heterogeneity in Japanese patients. Considering the dissimilarity in phenotype among our patients even with an identical mutation in the PHKA2 gene, it seems that each genetic deficiency in this gene may not be the only factor to determine the clinical heterogeneity in this disease.

Digital image analysis has been used for various biochemical and molecular biological analyses instead of autoradiography with X-ray film. However, in such cases the data manipulated by an imaging analyzer was generally printed out on normal printing paper. With normal paper, it is difficult to align the signal or its position relative to the original sample. Here in, we demonstrate it to be convenient and accurate to align signal obtained by imaging analyzer with OHP film.

The purpose of our study was to establish the localization of the anion transporter Npt1 in liver and the relevance of Npt1 to carrier-mediated hepatic transport of beta-lactam antibiotics. Immunocytochemical examination of mouse liver with antiserum for Npt1 showed basolateral (sinusoidal) membrane localization. Function of Npt1 was characterized in Xenopus laevis oocytes. Injection of in vitro-transcribed cRNA into oocytes resulted in an increased uptake of [14C]benzylpenicillin (PCG). The Npt1-mediated uptake was saturable with a Michaelis constant (Km) of 0.46 +/- 0.18 mM and a maximum rate (Vmax) of 46.6 +/- 8.5 pmol/60 min/oocyte, and the uptake of [14C]PCG was independent of Na+ and pH, but dependent on chloride ion. Npt1-mediated [14C]PCG uptake was inhibited by several beta-lactam antibiotics and probenecid. Oocytes injected with Npt1-cRNA demonstrated significantly enhanced transport activity for other anionic compounds such as [14C]faropenem, [14C]foscarnet and [3H]mevalonic acid, as well as [14C]PCG, compared with water-injected oocytes. In conclusion, Npt1 is suggested to participate in hepatic sinusoidal membrane transport of organic anions such as beta-lactam antibiotics as well as inorganic anions for the efflux from hepatocyte-to-blood direction.

Vitamin D is an important regulator of phosphate homeostasis. The effects of vitamin D on the expression of renal Na+-dependent inorganic phosphate (Pi) transporters (types I and II) were investigated. In vitamin D-deficient rats, the amounts of type II Na+-dependent Pi transporter (NaPi-2) protein and mRNA were decreased in the juxtamedullary kidney cortex, but not in the superficial cortex, compared with control rats. The administration of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25-(OH)2D3) to vitamin D-deficient rats increased the initial rate of Pi uptake as well as the amounts of NaPi-2 mRNA and protein in the juxtamedullary cortex. The transcriptional activity of a luciferase reporter plasmid containing the promoter region of the human type II Na+-dependent Pi transporter NaPi-3 gene was increased markedly by 1,25-(OH)2D3 in COS-7 cells expressing the human vitamin D receptor. A deletion and mutation analysis of the NaPi-3 gene promoter identified the vitamin D-responsive element as the sequence 5'-GGGGCAGCAAGGGCA-3' nucleotides -1977 to -1963 relative to the transcription start site. This element bound a heterodimer of the vitamin D receptor and retinoid X receptor, and it enhanced the basal transcriptional activity of the promoter of the herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase gene in an orientation-independent manner. Thus, one mechanism by which vitamin D regulates Pi homeostasis is through the modulation of the expression of type II Na+-dependent Pi transporter genes in the juxtamedullary kidney cortex.

A 28-year-old female had a severe depressed deformity of the left cheek due to false local injection of ZnCl2 into her buccal mucosa instead of an anesthetic. After several attempts at plastic surgery in another hospital with unsatisfactory results, she was treated surgically in our clinic using cheek skin expanded by a tissue expander. The outcome was satisfactory.

The extracellular concentration of inorganic phosphate (Pi) is an important determinant of parathyroid cell function. The effects of Pi may be mediated through specific molecules in the parathyroid cell membrane, one candidate molecule for which would be a Na+-dependent Pi cotransporter. A complementary DNA encoding a Na+-Pi cotransporter, termed rat PiT-1, has now been isolated from rat parathyroid. The 2890-bp complementary DNA encodes a protein of 681 amino acids that shows sequence identities of 97% and 93% with the type III Na+-Pi cotransporters mouse PiT-1 and human PiT-1, respectively. Expression of rat PiT-1 in Xenopus oocytes revealed that it possesses Na+-dependent Pi cotransport activity. PiT-1 messenger RNA (mRNA) is widely distributed in rat tissues and is most abundant in brain, bone, and small intestine. The amount of PiT-1 mRNA in the parathyroid of vitamin D-deficient rats was reduced compared with that in normal animals and increased markedly after administration of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Furthermore, the abundance of PiT-1 mRNA in the parathyroid was much greater in rats fed a low-Pi diet than in those fed a high-Pi diet. Thus, rat PiT-1 may contribute to the effects of Pi and vitamin D on parathyroid function.

To compare the metabolic consequences of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), glycemic control and energy metabolism were evaluated in 18 children displaying IDDM and 19 NIDDM adult patients. With rising concentrations of fasting blood glucose (FBG), hemoglobin A1C and free fatty acid, the percentage of the ratio of resting energy expenditure (REE) to predicted REE expressed as %REE increased and the respiratory quotient (RQ) decreased. The linear regression between RQ and FBG showed the same gradient in IDDM and NIDDM although the RQ in IDDM was always 0.07 lower than that in NIDDM given various FBG concentrations. Those patients whose RQ values were less than 0.7, indicating ketone body production, included 8 (44%) IDDM and 2 (11%) NIDDM patients. These results may explain the relatively greater manifestation of ketoacidosis in IDDM.

We investigated structural polymorphisms of the ACTBP2-STR region by sequence analysis instead of using PCR-amplified fragment length polymorphisms. A gel spot extraction reamplification method using 2% agarose gel was effective for preparing the individual alleles from zygotes with a length difference of more than 16bp. In a survey of polymorphisms in 116 unrelated Japanese subjects, alleles from 73 zygotes were prepared by this method. The STR structure of the allele was determined from the forward sequence image. The allele designation was made according to the number of the repeated AAAG tetranucleotide and also the position of the inserted AA or AG dinucleotide. Forty-three zygotes impossible to separate were first sequenced in a forward direction. Among them, 28 zygotes were typed directly by analysing the sequence image which exhibited a peculiar overlap of two sequences. For the remaining 15 zygotes, it was possible to type by analysing the forward and reverse sequence images together. This investigation revealed the presence of 79 kinds of alleles in 116 zygotes of ACTBP2. The most frequent allele was type 19, which accounted for 9.5% although this was still a small portion. Genotypes 19/20, 19/21, 18/21, 18/10AA12, 19/13AA11 and 20/13AA15 were detected from two subjects, respectively, and others including the type 19 homozygyote were unique.

The main target of the present essay is to carry out a reflexion on the adoption of the functional method in nursing work, as well as on the criticism to this method. A secondary aim will be to show how the nursing team has been "using" this method in their daily work routine in the search for a more humanized nursing care.

Alteration of the dietary intake of phosphate (P(i)) leads to rapid changes in renal P(i) transport activity. The present study, examined the underlying cellular mechanisms of the rapid regulation, with special reference to renal P(i) cotransporter. Rats were fed either a low-P(i) (0.02%) diet (CLP rats), the low-P(i) diet followed by a high-P(i) (1.2%) diet (AHP rats), or a normal (0.6%) diet (control rats). Na(+)-dependent P(i) transport activity in the brush border membrane was significantly increased in CLP rats compared with control rats, and this activity decreased rapidly within 2 h after the change of diet in AHP rats. Kinetic analysis of P(i) transport in the AHP rats indicated that the reduction was accompanied by a decrease in the apparent Vmax for Na(+)-dependent P(i) uptake. Northern blot analysis showed no difference in the abundance of NaP(i)-2 mRNA of the kidney between AHP and CLP rats. In contrast, Western blot analysis of renal brush border membrane proteins of AHP rats indicated a significant decrease in the abundance of NaP(i)-2 protein as compared with CLP rats. Immunoreactive signals for NaP(i)-2 were detected in lysosomal fractions of AHP and CLP rats. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that, NaP(i)-2 immunoreactivity in AHP rats was largely reduced in the apical membrane of the proximal tubular epithelial cells. Neither cycloheximide nor actinomycin D affected high-P(i)-induced reduction of NaP(i)-2 protein in the brush border membrane of AHP rats, indicating that de novo protein synthesis of an unidentified regulator protein was not involved in the mechanism of this reduction. In contrast, treatment with colchicine, which disrupts microtubulers, abolished the effect of high-P(i) diet on NaP(i)-2 expression. These results suggested that rapid endocytotic internalization of NaP(i)-2 may occur specifically in the brush border membrane following an acute increase in dietary P(i) intake.

The substrate recognition and catalytic mechanisms of alpha-sarcin were explored with kinetic method by using synthetic 25-mer RNA mimicking the alpha-sarcin/ricin loop in 23S rRNA of E. coli ribosomes. The oligomer containing deoxy-G at the site of alpha-sarcin (G14) was a potent competitive inhibitor. The RNA having deoxy-G8 however, increases the Kcat value by about five times but without significant alteration on Km. Surprisingly, the deletion of G8 makes the oligomer become a strong noncompetitive inhibitor of the enzyme. These results suggested that there are at least two sites in the RNA substrate which are recognized by alpha-sarcin, one is the G8 bulge or at around its neighbor and the other is the GAGA in the sarcin/ricin loop of the rRNA.

When the PCR products amplified by the primers prepared at the 11th HLA Workshop (DQBAMP-A, DQBAMP-B) were analyzed directly by the SSCP method, one or two pairs of characteristic bands were detected other than those attributed to DQB1, and a total of three kind of paired bands were detected. To confirm that these bands were allelic genes of DQB2, the corresponding bands were isolated by cloning, and their base sequences were determined. The base sequence of one of them was in agreement with that of DX beta, which has already been described, and the characteristic 3-base defect was noted by comparison with the base sequence of DQB1. The same 3-base defect was noted also in the other two kinds. One-base substitution was present in each of the three kinds of base sequence, and they were confirmed to be allelic genes of DQB2. In DQB1 typing by the PCR/SSCP method of Carrington et al., treatment with the restriction enzyme Alu 1 is needed to eliminate DQB2. However, the use of this enzyme was theoretically demonstrated to be inappropriate, because it degraded the DQB1*0401 gene.

We have investigated polymorphism of mitochondrial (mt) DNAs in the Japanese population. In order to compare 288-bp sequences (nucleotide positions 16,111 to 16,398) in the noncoding region, a 452-bp segment elongated by 82 bp at both sides of the target was amplified by PCR and analyzed directly by Taq cycle sequencing with FITC-labelled primers. A survey of 100 Japanese individuals revealed the existence of 66 types of mtDNAs. Among them, 10 types including two frequent types were shared by more than one individual. During this investigation, it was found that 19 types (from 25 individuals) possessed a common nucleotide replacement of T by C at position 16,189, by which a "C-continuous stretch" was formed, and that clear reading of their sequences was restricted in the region lying ahead of the C stretch on either forward or reverse sequencing. Cloning analysis of PCR product possessing the C stretch demonstrated that the length of the C stretch was heterogeneous. Consequently, we propose the following rules for mtDNA sequencing and its forensic application: 1) the replacement of T by C at position 16,189 is acceptable as a variation factor. 2) The number of Cs in the C stretch is tentatively fixed at 10.

Intestinal ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) is strongly induced by dietary amino acid and protein feeding. However, the consequence of this induction is unknown. In this study, we analyzed the relationship between intestinal ODC activity and DNA synthesis in villus and crypt cells of rat intestine. Single amino acid diets and protein diets stimulated ODC activity in villus cells, but not in crypt cells. However a 20% casein diet induced ODC activity and increased the putrescine concentration in villus and crypt cells. Administration of alpha-difluoromethylornithine, a suicide inhibitor of ODC, prevented both an increase in putrescine level and DNA synthesis in the crypt cells. Observations suggested that the induction of ODC is necessary to initiate DNA synthesis in rat intestinal epithelium.

PP187-SUN BLOOD INDEX FOR ESTIMATING NON-PROTEIN RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT WITHOUT USING INDIRECT CALORIMETRY IN CIRRHOTIC PATIENTS H. Yamanaka-Okumura1, A. Teramoto1, T. Katayama2, S. Imura3, T. Utsunomiya3, M. Shimada3, E. Takeda1. 1Clinical Nutrition, University of Tokushima Graduate School, Tokushima, 2Statistics and Computer Science, College of Nursing Art and Science, University of Hyogo, Akashi, 3Digestive and Pediatric Surgery, University of Tokushima Graduate School, Tokushima, Japan

We investigated the absorption of carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) using a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) microscopy system. Weak absorption at 1969 cm-1 due to Fe--CO and strong absorption due to N-H stretching vibration,C = O stretching vibration and -NH bending vibration (1544 cm-1) were observed. The ratio of absorbance at 1969 cm-1/1544 cm-1 can be used as an index of CO saturation. Therefore, when formalin-fixed blood remains in blood vessels in formalin-fixed tissues, the amount of COHb can be calculated using this FTIR microscopy system.