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Environmental media contamination with mercury, because of illegal artisanal small-scale gold mining (popularly called galamsey), is a major concern in Ghana; yet specific details as to how such contaminations are influenced or distributed across different galamsey operations have been lacking. We monitored mercury levels across nine different galamsey operations (Washing Board, Washing Plant, Anwona, Dig and Wash, Dredging, Underground Abandoned Shaft, Underground Sample Pit, Chamfi and Mill House) in three hotspot assemblies (Tarkwa Nsuaem, Amenfi East and Prestea Huni Valley) of the Western Region of Ghana. Triplicate samples each of background soil, surface water/drainage, slurry/sludge and galamsey waste materials (totaling 160) were obtained and analyzed using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) to determine total Hg concentrations. From the comparison of mean ranked concentration of mercury, using the Kruskal-Wallis Test, it was realized that the observed differences in ranking was significant for all four environmental media considered. Thus, the poor handling, usage and disposal of mercury from the different galamsey activities did result in elevation of harmful quantities of mercury into the environment. Overall, the highest median value obtained for mercury was recorded at the Mill House galamsey sites and within slurry/sludge medium. This was followed by Chamfi, Washing Board, Washing Plant, Anwona, Dig and Wash and Dredging in descending order, with the Underground Abandoned Shaft and Underground Sample Pit galamsey types recording values below detection limit. In terms of their contribution to mercury contamination to the environment, Mill House, Chamfi, Anwona, Washing Board and Washing Plant galamsey types recorded the highest mean rankings. Overall, key priority information required for influencing reclamation and cleanup policy decisions for mercury, for the many affected wastelands across the country, can be derived from this paper.

Access to safe sanitation facilities remains a critical public health concern, especially in rapidly urbanizing countries like Ghana. This study investigates the determinants of household toilet ownership among property owners in three urban districts in Ghana. Using a cross-sectional survey design, data were collected from 1,256 property owners selected through a multi-stage stratified sampling procedure. Logistic regression analysis revealed that toilet ownership is significantly associated with the age and education level of property owners, community classification, building characteristics, and household income. Older property owners were more likely to own toilets (OR = 1.014 per year increase), as were those with higher education levels (OR = 1.752 for secondary, OR = 4.489 for tertiary education). Medium-class communities (OR = 2.013) completed buildings (OR = 2.625), and those constructed with sandcrete (OR = 12.755) were more likely to have toilets. Higher household income (OR = 1.00) correlated positively with toilet ownership. We conclude that enforcing building regulations requiring toilet facilities in all properties is crucial for improving sanitation in urban Ghana. Additionally, innovative sanitation financing interventions that subsidize the costs of sanitation facilities can be effective in addressing financial barriers and increasing household toilet ownership., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2025 Duku et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

In 2015, Ghana launched the National Drinking Water Quality Management Framework (NDWQMF) to promote a risk-based approach to water quality through water safety plans (WSPs). This study uses a narrative review to synthesize WSP implementation progress in Ghana, identify gaps in practice, and provide recommendations for enhanced effectiveness and scale-up. Findings show limited uptake: only three of 88 urban water supply systems have adopted WSPs, while in the rural sector, the Community Water and Sanitation Agency has implemented WSPs in 177 of 1,022 small-town systems, and the safe water network in 46 systems. However, community-managed water systems overseen by local governments are yet to initiate WSPs. For those that have begun, significant documentation and implementation gaps are noted, including incomplete hazard listings, insufficient improvement plans, and absent standard operating procedures. To strengthen WSP implementation, this study emphasizes the need for robust regulatory mechanisms across urban and rural sectors, along with tailored guidelines and support structures to enable effective WSP adoption across diverse water systems., Competing Interests: The authors declare there is no conflict., (© 2024 The Authors This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence (CC BY 4.0), which permits copying, adaptation and redistribution, provided the original work is properly cited (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).)

Background: Urban sanitation challenges persist in Ghana, prompting Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies (MMDAs) to explore innovative funding mechanisms such as surcharges to fund sanitation services. This study assesses property owners' attitudes toward the imposition of sanitation surcharge for pro-poor sanitation improvement in the Kumasi Metropolis., Method: An analytical cross-sectional study was conducted among 424 property owners in the Kumasi metropolis. Structured questionnaires were utilized to solicit information from respondents using multi-stage sampling techniques., Results: Findings indicated that 36.1% of respondents were willing to pay the sanitation surcharge, while 63.9% opposed its implementation in the Metropolis. Property ownership and support for a sanitation surcharge were associated with higher odds of willingness to pay. Participants paying property rates had decreased odds of supporting the sanitation surcharge. Factors associated with pro-poor spending support included age (61-80 years) [AOR = 1.81, 95%CI = 1.60-3.82] and willingness to pay sanitation surcharge [AOR = 11.07, 95%CI = 6.63-18.49]. Protective factors against supporting pro-poor spending included residing in medium-class communities [AOR = 0.25, 95%CI = 0.08-0.81], perceiving improvement in sanitation status [AOR = 0.41, 95%CI = 0.21-0.81) and having a home toilet facility (OR = 0.65, 95%CI = 0.36-0.95)., Conclusion: The study revealed a nuanced landscape where concerns about fund utilization, perceived tax burdens, and trust in local institutions significantly shape public sentiment. To enhance public acceptance and participation, policymakers should prioritize transparent communication to build trust and convey the effective utilization of funds from the sanitation surcharge., Competing Interests: The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article., (© The Author(s) 2024.)

Open defecation continuously remains a major global sanitation challenge, contributing to an estimated 1.6 million deaths per year. Ghana ranks second in Africa for open defecation and had the fourth-lowest sanitation coverage in 2010. Evidence indicates that about 32% of the rural Ghanaian population still practice open defecation due to lack of access to basic sanitation facilities, drifting the country from achieving universal access to sanitation by 2030. Women, particularly those in rural areas, are disproportionately affected by open defecation, facing heightened health risks, harassment, and a loss of dignity. Even though previous studies on open defecation in Ghana exist, they lack national representation and neglect women in rural residents who are disproportionally affected by the repercussions of open defecation. Examining that rural women will contribute to heightening their own vulnerability to health risks by practising open defecation is essential to bridging the literature gap on open defecation practices among rural women. The study investigated determinants of open defecation among rural women in Ghana using data from the female files of the 2003, 2008 and 2014 Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS). A total of 4,284 rural women with complete information on variables of interest were included in the study. The outcome variable was 'open defecation', whilst 14 key explanatory variables (e.g., age, education, wealth status, among others) were used. Two logistic regression models were built, and the outputs were reported in odds ratio. Descriptively, 42 in every 100 women aged 15 to 49 practiced open defecation (n = 1811, 95% CI = 49-52). Open defecation (OD) significantly correlated with educational attainment, wealth status, religion, access to mass media, partner's education, and zone of residence. The likelihood of practicing open defecation reduced among those with formal education [aOR = 0.69, CI = 0.56-0.85], those whose partners had formal education [aOR = 0.64, CI = 0.52-0.80], women in the rich wealth quintile [aOR = 0.12, CI = 0.07-0.20], the traditionalist [aOR = 0.33, CI = 0.19-0.57], and those who had access to mass media [aOR = 0.70, CI = 0.57-0.85]. Residents in the Savannah zone had higher odds of openly defecating [aOR = 21.06, CI = 15.97-27.77]. The prevalence of open defecation is disproportionately pro-poor, which indicates that impoverished rural women are more likely to perform it. Public health initiatives should aim to close the rich-poor divide in OD practice among rural women., Competing Interests: The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article., (© The Author(s) 2024.)

Water quality index, ecotoxicology and human health risk models were applied to surface and groundwater samples along illegal crude oil refining sites in Rivers State, Nigeria. Eight (8) surface water and four (4) groundwater sampling points were identified along illegal refining sites. Thirty-six (36) samples in triplicates were collected monthly from each of the twelve (12) sampling points over a three (3) month period. Water samples were collected and analyzed using standard methods as prescribed by the American Public Health Association. The mean pH for surface and groundwater ranged from 5.61 ± 0.15 to 7.34 ± 0.10 and 5.80 ± 0.10 to 6.39 ± 0.13, respectively. Turbidity, TDS, and BOD data for surface water samples exceeded the WHO guideline values. The ionic dominance pattern of anions for both surface and groundwater water samples were the same and in the order Cl -  > SO 4 2-  > NO 3 -  > PO 4 2- . Mean heavy metal concentration was in the order Pb > Ni > Fe > Cd > Mn > Cu for surface water and Pb > Cd > Fe > Mn > Ni > Cu for groundwater. Cd and Pb concentrations in both sources were generally high, with Cd exceeding the WHO guideline value (GV). The CCME water quality index model ranked 62.5% of surface water as marginal, 12.5% as good, 12.5% as poor, and 12.5% as fair. The impact of heavy metals on public health was in the order Pb > Cd > Ni > Fe > Mn, with 83% of samples seriously affected by Pb pollution. The potential ecological risk index ranged from 1.61 × 10 3 to 2.64 × 10 3 for surface water and 8.10 × 10 2 to 2.21 × 10 3 for groundwater. Heavy metal contamination was very high, and the ecological risk effect was extremely high. The health risk through oral ingestion was in the order of adults > infants > children. Two principal components, PC1 and PC2, explained 50.51% and 16.00% of the variations in surface water quality, respectively. For groundwater quality data, three principal components explained the observed variations in water quality data, of which 51.39% is attributed to PC1, 26.29% to PC2, and 16.58% to PC3., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2023 The Authors.)

This study was carried out to assess the degradation and accumulation rates of fresh human excreta and how addition of anal cleansing materials affect performance during vermicomposting by Eisenia fetida and Eudrilus eugeniae. Vermicomposting setups consisting of two transparent containers (length 0.27 m, breadth 0.17 m and depth 0.12 m) stacked on top of each other were installed and operated under laboratory conditions. Earthworms, Eisenia fetida and Eudrilus eugeniae, were obtained from Green Cycle Technologies Limited in Accra, Ghana and the species verified and cultured before use. Fresh human excreta for feeding the experimental setups was collected from an Enviro-loo public toilet and 13 g applied to the setups daily. Similar setups were fed with 0.3 g of anal cleansing material in addition to the fresh excreta. A setup without any earthworms (NW) was set up as a control. Physicochemical characteristics of vermicompost accumulating in the setups were determined weekly for 28 days using standard laboratory procedures while the sludge accumulated in the various setups were weighed and recorded daily. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Post-hoc LSD tests were conducted to determine whether the differences in results between the two earthworm species and among setups with and without anal cleansing materials were statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05). The study showed 12.3% and 26.2% reduction in volatile solids in EE (Eudrilus eugeniae and excreta only) and EF (Eisenia fetida and excreta only) while ash content increased indicating good degradation. The percentage mass reductions recorded at the end of the fourth week were 67.5%, 58.8% and 40.5% in systems EE, EF and NW respectively, while reductions of 73.7% and 68.5% were realized in EEA (Eudrilus eugeniae with excreta and toilet paper) and EFA (Eisenia fetida with excreta and toilet paper) respectively. There was greater amount of sludge accumulated in systems without earthworms, 0.00020 m 3 (59.5%) in NW, than in systems with earthworms where 0.00011 m 3 (32.5%) and 0.00014 m 3 (41.2%) were recorded for EE and EF respectively. The rate of accumulation in vermibeds EE and EF was relatively higher than in vermibeds with excreta and toilet paper (EEA and EFA). EEA and EFA recorded accumulation rates of 0.00009 m 3 (26.3%) and 0.00011 m 3 (31.5%) respectively. Complete removal of helminth eggs was not achieved in any of the treatment systems., (Copyright © 2021. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Drinking water in Ghana is estimated at 79%, but this only represents the proportion of the population with access to improved drinking water sources without regard to the quality of water consumed. This study investigated the quality of household drinking water sources in the Oforikrom municipality where potable water requirements are on the rise due to an ever-increasing population. Both quantitative and qualitative methods were employed in this study. One Hundred households were randomly selected and interviewed on the available options for drinking water and household water treatment and safe storage. A total of 52 points of collection (POC) and 97 points of use (POU) water samples from households were collected for physicochemical and microbial water quality analysis. Amongst the available drinking water options, sachet water (46%) was mostly consumed by households. Water quality analysis revealed that the physicochemical parameters of all sampled drinking water sources were within the Ghana Standards Authority (GSA) recommended values expected for pH (ranging from 4.50 to 7.50). For the drinking water sources, bottled (100%, n  = 2) and sachet water (91%, n  = 41) showed relatively good microbial water quality. Generally, POC water samples showed an improved microbial water quality in comparison to POU water samples. About 38% ( n  = 8) of the households practicing water quality management, were still exposed to unsafe drinking water sources. Households should practice good water quality management at the domestic level to ensure access to safe drinking water. This may include the use of chlorine-based disinfectants to frequently disinfect boreholes, wells and storage facilities at homes.

This study investigated the effects of two mostly improvised chemical additives, calcium carbide and lambda super 2.5 EC (LSEC), on the physico-chemical and microbial characteristics of faecal sludge from toilets. The quality of faecal sludge was assessed before and after application of the chemical additives in an experimental setup of ten different treatment units including a control, and treatment replicates. The initial characteristic of the faecal sludge was slightly acidic with high content of slowly degradable organic matter. The experimental control without additives after 30 days showed reduction in BOD 5 , COD, helminth eggs and sludge mass by a maximum of 30%, 34.7%, 99.8% and 55% respectively. Similarly, calcium carbide additive reduced the BOD 5 , COD, helminth eggs and the mass of the faecal sludge by 47.4%, 48.3%, 99.6% and 61% respectively. Also, LSEC additive reduced BOD 5 , COD, helminth eggs and the mass of the sludge by 40.6%, 47.9%, 95.9% and 58% respectively. The two additives showed significant treatment effect on the faecal sludge although the level of treatment could not meet the regulatory discharge limits for the key quality parameters assessed including sanitisation. The study is still a grey area and more research is recommended to enrich the findings., (© 2020 The Author(s).)

This study determined the contamination levels of oil and grease (O/G) across nine (9) galamsey operations under different environmental media (background soil, surface drainage, slurry/sludge and galamsey wastes) in three galamsey hotspot assemblies (Tarkwa Nsuaem, Amenfi East and Prestea Huni Valley) within the Western region of Ghana. Triplicate samples each of the four environmental media for the nine galamsey types (Washing Board, Washing Plant, Anwona, Dig and Wash, Dredging, Underground Abandoned Shaft, Underground Sample Pit, Chamfi and Mill House) were collected and analysed using n-hexane extractable materials in acidic medium by extraction and gravimetry to determine O/G concentrations. From the comparison of mean ranked concentration of O/G, using Kruskal-Wallis Test, the observed differences in the ranking was significant across all four media. The O/G concentrations for Anwona, Chamfi, Mill House, Washing Board and Washing Plant galamsey recorded exceedances when compared to the Ghana EPA Effluent Guideline Value of 100 mg/L for water and The New Dutch Lists' Target and Intervention Value of 50 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg for solid/semi-solid materials. Consistently and for all environmental media types, the levels of O/G across the galamsey types were in the descending order of: Washing Board, Chamfi, Anwona, Mill House, Washing Plant, Underground Sample Pit, River Dredging, Dig and Wash, Underground Abandoned Shaft and Control Sample (non-galamseyed areas). In general, the surface drainage medium was predominantly found to be the most impacted upon medium from hydrocarbons by seven of the nine galamsey operations (Washing Board, Anwona, Chamfi, Mill House, Dredging, Dig and Wash and Underground Sample Pit). This was followed by slurry/sludge, background soil and waste media in that order. Expectedly, there were no exceedances for the Reference or Control Samples (non-galamseyed areas)., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This study employed GIS tools to help optimise faecal sludge (FS) management in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA) and its environs in Ghana. First, the rates of excreta generation, FS generation and FS collection were quantified based on literature, census and FS discharge data obtained from treatment plants in the study area. Next, we mapped the FS collection to the administrative areas in GAMA based on discharge records obtained from Lavender Hill, the main faecal treatment (FTP) and estimated the travel distance and travel time from the various FS desludging neighbourhoods to the plant. The results of the study show that the excreta and FS generation rates in GAMA are 604 L/cap/yr and 4,137 L/cap/yr, respectively. About 1 million m 3 of FS was collected and treated in the study area in 2018, with a collection rate of 244 L/cap/yr. The private sector dominates this collection, haulage and treatment of FS in GAMA. The GIS analysis has provided fundamental data that will be useful in rationalising the FS emptying and transport cost in the study area. Moreover, it revealed that about 20-40% of the localities were outside the 15-25 km sustainable maximum transport distance recommended by some scholars. Finally, the findings highlight the importance of looking beyond administrative boundaries when planning for FS management logistics and infrastructure and also show that the most impoverished communities in the Accra metropolis may not necessarily be the least served when it comes to FS collection and haulage., (© 2019 The Authors.)

Knowledge of cost and effectiveness of Ghana's main hygiene promotion intervention (HPI), Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS), is critical for policy direction. Cost and resultant effect of HPI is examined using a case study of four communities. Surveys were conducted with 300 households, CLTS implementers and relevant agencies during the study period (May 2012 to February 2014). The HPI produced marginal but statistically significant effect (8%, p < 0.001). Improvement in hygiene behaviour was statistically associated with both government investments (p < 0.001) and household investments (p < 0.001). Actual HPI cost is US$ 90 per household: US$ 51 and 39 from government and households respectively. Cost-effectiveness of the HPI is US$ 106.42 per capita of improved hygiene behaviour.

Recently, there have been efforts by stakeholders to monitor illegal mining ( galamsey) activities, foster their formalization and reclaim the many abandoned wastelands in Ghana. However, limited information exists on the locations, abundance, scope and scale of galamsey types, which hinders the development of effective policy response. This study attempts to map and analyze the distribution patterns, abundance, activity statuses and the extents of nine (9) galamsey types within eleven (11) Municipal and District Assemblies (MDAs) of Ghana's Western Region. It explores the utility of field-based survey, using the Open Data Kit (ODK) system, ArcGIS and Google Earth Imagery to map and visualize different galamsey types under a hostile working environment. A total of 911 galamsey sightings, of which 547 were found in clusters (corresponding to approximately 7106 individual operational units) and 364 in stand-alone mode. Overall, a total of 7470 individual galamsey operations were encountered in 312 different communities (towns and villages). Operationally, the Alluvial Washing Board, Mill-House and Chamfi were found to be the three most popular and practiced galamsey types. The three main galamsey hotspot districts (out of the 11) are the Tarkwa Nsuaem (294 sightings and 3648 individual galamsey sites), Amenfi East (223 sightings and 1397 individual galamsey sites) and Prestea Huni-Valley Districts (156 sightings and 1130 individual galamsey sites). In terms of their activity statuses, 199 abandoned operations (entailing 1855 individual operations), 664 active (entailing 5055 individuals operations) and 48 semi-active (comprising 560 individuals within clusters) galamsey operations were sighted at the time of the study. While galamsey is generally acknowledged to be widespread in Ghana, the results suggest a scale that probably surpasses any previous estimate or expectation. The findings will adequately inform the prioritization of reclamation efforts.

Greywater management in Ghana receives little or no attention although untreated greywater is associated with environmental and public health risks. This paper assesses greywater characteristics and handling practices among urban households in three selected communities in Kumasi, the second largest city of Ghana. The study involved in-depth surveys (interviews and observations) with 90 households, and collection of 18 greywater samples from nine greywater sources for laboratory analysis. Average greywater generation is 43.36 ± 17 litres per capita per day, equivalent to 36% of average water consumption. Greywater is untreated before disposal (≈99%), and disposal is mainly (89%) into drains and onto streets. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) levels are high but give very low BOD/COD ratios (0.20 ± 0.07) indicating a very low biodegradability potential. Nutrient levels are high: 12 times (P) and 30 times (N) in excess of standard discharge limits. Other contaminants detected are heavy metals (Fe, Pb, Zn and Cd), microbes (total coliforms, Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp.), and organic micropollutants - benzalkonium chloride, parabens (methyl and propyl), sodium benzoate and hypochlorite - and details of the levels are discussed in the paper. Greywater reuse could be useful for biomass production, but it also presents a challenge and threat to natural biological processes and water sources.