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The essential purpose of biodiversity conservation is to protect individual species and to preserve habitats and ecosystems which have declined in quantity and quality over time as a result of human activities. In some instances, laws have been passed to protect vulnerable resources from overexploitation and to support efforts that address biodiversity conservation. Enforcement of laws intended to protect natural resources can only be accomplished if it can be demonstrated that violations have occurred. With respect to biodiversity conservation, this means being able to protect both the species impacted and their habitat. The protection of individual species requires the ability to characterize species, as well as how those species are structured in animal communities. Forensic science is deeply rooted in international legal systems, dating back to the first use of fingerprints to identify deceased humans in China in the 700s. The field of wildlife forensic genetics is currently used to support wildlife law enforcement investigations. The evolution of wildlife forensic genetics closely follows the use of genetic technologies in the field of human forensic identification, with some significant differences in its application for wildlife law enforcement. In this chapter, we will provide an overview of how wildlife forensic genetics intersects with biodiversity conservation efforts and provide case studies which illustrate the diverse application of forensic genetics to the enforcement of wildlife conservation laws.

The majority of DNA casework processed by forensic laboratories focuses on human samples, but material from canids (dogs, wolves, coyotes) can also be encountered. Undomesticated canids can be the center of forensic investigations in the U.S. since some species are endangered. As many wolf species are similar morphologically, identification in the field by wildlife officers is not always straight-forward, making molecular based-approaches ideal. While some published methods using mitochondrial DNA targets can discriminate among Canis species, they are either not compatible with highly degraded samples or cannot differentiate closely related sub-species. Although some U.S. laboratories regularly perform veterinary/wildlife casework including canid identifications, their validated methods and reference genetic databases are not publicly available. We aimed to assess the utility of alternative regions in the mitochondrial genome for discriminating among canid species, including the complete genome. To achieve this, we utilized a commercial hybridization capture panel composed of biotinylated RNA “baits” designed for the domestic dog to enrich canid mitochondrial genomes for next-generation sequencing. We used this panel to successfully sequence complete mitochondrial genomes for 51 samples, representing four U.S. forensically relevant canids (coyote, wolf, Mexican wolf, dog). While the complete mitochondrial genome permitted discrimination, we also assessed previously published mitochondrial DNA targets (n, 5) for resolution and identified four alternate ∼200 bp fragments from ND1, ND5, COI and CYTB genes that could help resolve canids. The utility of these alternate regions should be assessed in future studies using forensic-type samples representing canids from diverse geographic areas, prior to casework implementation.

Monitoring wolf abundance is important for recovery efforts of Mexican wolves (Canis lupus baileyi) in the Blue Range Wolf Recovery Area in Arizona and New Mexico, USA. Although radiotelemetry has been a reliable method, collaring and tracking wolves in an expanding population will be prohibitively expensive and alternative methods to estimate abundance will become necessary. We applied 10 canid microsatellite loci to 235 Mexican wolf samples, 48 coyote (C. latrans) samples, and 14 domestic dog (C. lupus familiaris) samples to identify alleles that provide reliable separation of these species. We then evaluated an approach for prescreening, noninvasively collected DNA obtained from fecal samples to identify Mexican wolves. We generated complete genotypes for only those samples identified as probable Mexican wolves. We used these genotypes to estimate mark–recapture population estimates of Mexican wolves and compared these to known numbers of wolves in the study area. We collected fecal samples during 3 sampling periods in 2007–2008 and used Huggins-type mark–recapture models to estimate Mexican wolf abundance. We were able to generate abundance estimates with 95% confidence for 2 of 3 sampling periods. We estimated abundance to be 10 (95% CI = 6–34) during one sampling period when the known abundance was 10 and we estimated abundance to be 9 (95% CI = 6–30) during the other sampling period when the known abundance was 10. The application of this noninvasive method to estimate Mexican wolf abundance provides an alternative monitoring tool that could be useful for long-term monitoring of this and other recovering populations. Published 2016. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

Caviar is among the world’s most valuable wildlife products. Exploitation of sturgeon and paddlefish for the caviar trade has severely reduced abundance, and harvest of most species is regulated under CITES. International trade requires that importing nations verify the species source of caviars they receive; the US domestic trade has no such requirement. We report the results of forensic species identifications of US caviar imports from 1998 to 2008 and of US domestic market caviars from 1997 to 1998. Twelve species were identified overall and species origins were mislabeled three times as often among US domestic market caviars (14.7 %) as among imports (4.9 %). Industry practices associated with the re-packaging of caviars for domestic markets and re-export from intermediate countries have created opportunities for the co-mingling of legitimate caviars with those from illegal, unreported and unregulated sources.

Conflicting interpretations of the influence of coyote hybridization on wolf recovery in the western Great Lakes (WGL) states have stemmed from disagreement over the systematics of North American wolves. Questions regarding their recovery status have resulted. We addressed these issues with phylogenetic and admixture analysis of DNA profiles of western wolves, WGL states wolves and Wisconsin coyotes developed from autosome and Y-chromosome microsatellites and mitochondrial DNA control region sequence. Hybridization was assessed by comparing the haplotypes exhibited by sympatric wolves and coyotes. Genetic variability and connectivity were also examined. These analyses support the recognition of Canis lycaon as a unique species of North American wolf present in the WGL states and found evidence of hybridization between C. lupus and C. lycaon but no evidence of recent hybridization with sympatric coyotes. The recolonized WGL states wolves are genetically similar to historical wolves from the region and should be considered restored.