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The ability to successfully develop a safe and effective vaccine for the prevention of HIV infection has proven challenging. Consequently, alternative approaches to HIV infection prevention have been pursued, and there have been a number of successes with differing levels of efficacy. At present, only two oral preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) products are available, Truvada and Descovy. Descovy is a newer product not yet indicated in individuals at risk of HIV-1 infection from receptive vaginal sex, because it still needs to be evaluated in this population. A topical dapivirine vaginal ring is currently under regulatory review, and a long-acting (LA) injectable cabotegravir product shows strong promise. Although demonstrably effective, daily oral PrEP presents adherence challenges for many users, particularly adolescent girls and young women, key target populations. This limitation has triggered development efforts in LA HIV prevention options. This article reviews efforts supported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, as well as similar work by other groups, to identify and develop optimal LA HIV prevention products. Specifically, this article is a summary review of a meeting convened by the foundation in early 2020 that focused on the development of LA products designed for extended delivery of tenofovir alafenamide (TAF) for HIV prevention. The review broadly serves as technical guidance for preclinical development of LA HIV prevention products. The meeting examined the technical feasibility of multiple delivery technologies, in vivo pharmacokinetics, and safety of subcutaneous (SC) delivery of TAF in animal models. Ultimately, the foundation concluded that there are technologies available for long-term delivery of TAF. However, because of potentially limited efficacy and possible toxicity issues with SC delivery, the foundation will not continue investing in the development of LA, SC delivery of TAF products for HIV prevention.

Background Pulmonary infections associated with Pseudomonas aeruginosa can be life-threatening for patients suffering from chronic lung diseases such as cystic fibrosis. In this scenario, the formation of biofilms embedded in a mucus layer can limit the permeation and the activity of anti-infectives. Objectives Native human pulmonary mucus can be isolated from endotracheal tubes, but this source is limited for large-scale testing. This study, therefore, aimed to evaluate a modified artificial sputum medium (ASMmod) with mucus-like viscoelastic properties as a surrogate for testing anti-infectives against P. aeruginosa biofilms. Methods Bacterial growth in conventional broth cultures was compared with that in ASMmod, and PAO1-GFP biofilms were imaged by confocal microscopy. Transport kinetics of three antibiotics, tobramycin, colistin, and ciprofloxacin, through native mucus and ASMmod were studied, and their activity against PAO1 biofilms grown in different media was assessed by determination of metabolic activity and cfu. Results PAO1(-GFP) cultured in human pulmonary mucus or ASMmod showed similarities in bacterial growth and biofilm morphology. A limited permeation of antibiotics through ASMmod was observed, indicating its strong barrier properties, which are comparable to those of native human mucus. Reduced susceptibility of PAO1 biofilms was observed in ASMmod compared with LB medium for tobramycin and colistin, but less for ciprofloxacin. Conclusions These findings underline the importance of mucus as a biological barrier to antibiotics. ASMmod appears to be a valuable surrogate for studying mucus permeation of anti-infectives and their efficacy against PAO1 biofilms.

Core-shell structured nanoparticles (NPs) render the simultaneous coloading capacity of both hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs and may eventually enhance therapeutic efficacy. In this study, we employed a facile squalenoylation technology to synthesize a new amphiphilic starch derivative from partially oxidized starch, which self-assembled into core-shell starch NPs (StNPs) only at a squalenyl degree of substitution (DoS) of ∼1%. The StNPs characteristics could be tuned as the functions of the polymer molecular weight, DoS, and NPs concentration. The biopharmaceutical features of the StNPs, including colloidal stability, carrier properties, and biocompatibility, were carefully investigated. The interaction study between StNPs and mucin glycoproteins, the main organic component of mucus, revealed a moderate mucin interacting profile. Furthermore, the StNPs also showed good penetration through Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. These results nominate StNPs as a versatile drug delivery platform with potential applications for mucosal drug delivery and the treatment of persistent infections.

Inhalation therapy has been reported as the most effective treatment for respiratory bacterial infections due to the increasing relevance of drug bioavailability. Drug delivery systems (DDS) have the capacity to overcome pulmonary biological barriers limiting the bioavailability of inhaled anti-infectives. This is important to eradicate bacterial infections and to prevent the development of bacterial resistance. Despite substantial efforts in the field, the current state-of-the-art often fails to achieve those goals, and we still observe increasing bacterial resistance. We give a brief insight on benefits and challenges in pulmonary delivery of anti-infectives. In the context of drug delivery development for pulmonary infections, particularly focusing on Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) infections, this mini review will critically discuss the main requirements, as well as the recent strategies of drug delivery system synthesis and preparation. Finally, interaction of DDS with crucial pulmonary biological barriers will be of great importance for the success of future applications of the developed DDS.

The aim of this work was to formulate and characterize surfactant-free glibenclamide nanoparticles using Eudragit RLPO and polyethylene glycol as sole stabilizer.Glibenclamide nanoparticles were obtained by nanoprecipitation and evaluated in terms of drug content, encapsulation efficiency, apparent saturation solubility, drug release profile, solid state and storage stability. The influence of different stirring speed on the particle size, size distribution and zeta potential of the nanoparticles was investigated. The nanoparticle biocompatibility and permeability were analyzed in vitro on Caco-2 cell line (clone HTB-37) and its interaction with mucin was also investigated.It was found that increasing the molecular weight of polyethylene glycol from 400 to 6000 decreased drug encapsulation, whereas the aqueous solubility and dissolution rate of the drug increased. Particle size of the nanoformulations, with and without polyethylene glycol, were between 140 and 460 nm. Stability studies confirmed that glibenclamide nanoparticles were stable, in terms of particle size, after 120 days at 4°C. In vitro studies indicated minimal interactions of glibenclamide nanoparticles and mucin glycoproteins suggesting favorable properties to address the intestinal mucus barrier. Cell viability studies confirmed the safety profile of these nanoparticles and showed an increased permeation through epithelial cells.Taking into consideration these findings, polyethylene glycol is a useful polymer for stabilizing these surfactant-free glibenclamide nanoparticles and represent a promising alternative to improve the treatment of non-insulin dependent diabetes.

The aim of this work was to formulate and characterize surfactant-free glibenclamide nanoparticles using Eudragit RLPO and polyethylene glycol as sole stabilizer. Glibenclamide nanoparticles were obtained by nanoprecipitation and evaluated in terms of drug content, encapsulation efficiency, apparent saturation solubility, drug release profile, solid state and storage stability. The influence of different stirring speed on the particle size, size distribution and zeta potential of the nanoparticles was investigated. The nanoparticle biocompatibility and permeability were analyzed in vitro on Caco-2 cell line (clone HTB-37) and its interaction with mucin was also investigated. It was found that increasing the molecular weight of polyethylene glycol from 400 to 6000 decreased drug encapsulation, whereas the aqueous solubility and dissolution rate of the drug increased. Particle size of the nanoformulations, with and without polyethylene glycol, were between 140 and 460 nm. Stability studies confirmed that glibenclamide nanoparticles were stable, in terms of particle size, after 120 days at 4°C. In vitro studies indicated minimal interactions of glibenclamide nanoparticles and mucin glycoproteins suggesting favorable properties to address the intestinal mucus barrier. Cell viability studies confirmed the safety profile of these nanoparticles and showed an increased permeation through epithelial cells. Taking into consideration these findings, polyethylene glycol is a useful polymer for stabilizing these surfactant-free glibenclamide nanoparticles and represent a promising alternative to improve the treatment of non-insulin dependent diabetes.

Primaquine and tafenoquine are the two 8-aminoquinoline (8-AQ) antimalarial drugs approved for malarial radical cure - the elimination of liver stage hypnozoites after infection with Plasmodium vivax. A single oral dose of tafenoquine leads to high efficacy against intra-hepatocyte hypnozoites after efficient first pass liver uptake and metabolism. Unfortunately, both drugs cause hemolytic anemia in G6PD-deficient humans. This toxicity prevents their mass administration without G6PD testing given the approximately 400 million G6PD deficient people across malarial endemic regions of the world. We hypothesized that liver-targeted delivery of 8-AQ prodrugs could maximize liver exposure and minimize erythrocyte exposure to increase their therapeutic window. Primaquine and tafenoquine were first synthesized as prodrug vinyl monomers with self-immolative hydrolytic linkers or cathepsin-cleavable valine-citrulline peptide linkers. RAFT polymerization was exploited to copolymerize these prodrug monomers with hepatocyte-targeting GalNAc monomers. Pharmacokinetic studies of released drugs after intravenous administration showed that the liver-to-plasma AUC ratios could be significantly improved, compared to parent drug administered orally. Single doses of the liver-targeted, enzyme-cleavable tafenoquine polymer were found to be as efficacious as an equivalent dose of the oral parent drug in the P. berghei causal prophylaxis model. They also elicited significantly milder hemotoxicity in the humanized NOD/SCID mouse model engrafted with red blood cells from G6PD deficient donors. The clinical application is envisioned as a single subcutaneous administration, and the lead tafenoquine polymer also showed excellent bioavailability and liver-to-blood ratios exceeding the IV administered polymer. The liver-targeted tafenoquine polymers warrant further development as a single-dose therapeutic via the subcutaneous route with the potential for broader patient administration without a requirement for G6PD diagnosis.

Clinical studies have validated that antiretroviral (ARV) drugs can serve as an HIV pre-exposure prophylactic (PrEP) strategy. Dosing adherence remains a crucial factor determining the final efficacy outcomes, and both long-acting implants and injectable depot systems are being developed to improve patient adherence. Here, we describe an injectable depot platform that exploits a new mechanism for both formation and controlled release. The depot is a polymeric prodrug synthesized from monomers that incorporate an ARV drug tenofovir alafenamide (TAF) with degradable linkers that can be designed to control release rates. The prodrug monomers are synthetically incorporated into homopolymer or block designs that exhibit high drug weight percent (wt%) and also are hydrophobized in these prodrug segments to drive depot formation upon injection. Drug release converts those monomers to more hydrophilic pendant groups via linker cleavage, and as this drug release proceeds, the polymer chains losing hydrophobicity are then disassociated from the depot and released over time to provide a depot dissolution mechanism. We show that long-acting TAF depots can be designed as block copolymers or as homopolymers. They can also be designed with different linkers, for example with faster or slower degrading p-hydroxybenzyloxycarbonyl (Benzyl) and ethyloxycarbonyl (Alkyl) linkers, respectively. Diblock designs of p(glycerol monomethacrylate)-b-p(Alkyl-TAF-methacrylate) and p(glycerol monomethacrylate)-b-p(Benzyl-TAF-methacrylate) were first characterized in a mouse subcutaneous injection model. The alkylcarbamate linker design (TAF 51 wt%) showed excellent sustained release profiles of the key metabolite tenofovir (TFV) in skin and plasma over a 50-day period. Next, the homopolymer design with a high TAF drug wt% of 73% was characterized in the same model. The homopolymer depots with p(Alkyl-TAFMA) exhibited sustained TFV and TAF release profiles in skin and blood over 60 days, and TFV-DP concentrations in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were found to be at least 10-fold higher than the clinically suggested minimally EC90 protective concentration of 24 fmol/106 cells. These are the first reports of sustained parent TAF dosing observed in mouse and TFV-DP in mouse PBMC. IVIS imaging of rhodamine labeled homopolymer depots showed that degradation and release of the depot coincided with the sustained TAF release. Finally, these polymers showed excellent stability in accelerated stability studies over a six-month time period, and exceptional solubility of over 700 mg/mL in the DMSO formulation solvent. The homopolymer designs have a drug reservoir potential of well over a year at mg/day dosing and may not require cold chain storage for global health and developed world long-acting drug delivery applications.

Lung infections caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa pose a serious threat to patients suffering from, among others, cystic fibrosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or bronchiectasis, often leading to life-threatening complications. The establishment of a chronic infection is substantially related to communication between bacteria via quorum-sensing networks. In this study, we aimed to assess the role of quorum-sensing signaling molecules of the Pseudomonas quinolone signal (PQS) and to investigate the viscoelastic properties of lung tissue homogenates of PA-infected mice in a prolonged acute murine infection model. Therefore, a murine infection model was successfully established via intra-tracheal infection with alginate-supplemented Pseudomonas aeruginosa NH57388A. Rheological properties of lung homogenates were analyzed with multiple particle tracking (MPT) and quorum-sensing molecules were quantified with LC–MS/MS. Statistical analysis of bacterial load and quorum-sensing molecules showed a strong correlation between these biomarkers in infected lungs. This was accompanied by noticeable changes in the consistency of lung homogenates with increasing infection severity. Furthermore, viscoelastic properties of the lung homogenates strongly correlated with bacterial load and quorum sensing molecules. Considering the strong correlation between the viscoelasticity of lung homogenates and the aforementioned biomarkers, the viscoelastic properties of infected lungs might serve as reliable new biomarker for the evaluation of the severity of P. aeruginosa infections in murine models.

Elimination of pulmonary Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) infections is challenging to accomplish with antibiotic therapies, mainly due to resistance mechanisms. Quorum sensing inhibitors (QSIs) interfering with biofilm formation can thus complement antibiotics. For simultaneous and improved delivery of both active agents to the infection sites, self‐assembling nanoparticles of a newly synthesized squalenyl hydrogen sulfate (SqNPs) were prepared. These nanocarriers allowed for remarkably high loading capacities of hydrophilic antibiotic tobramycin (Tob) and a novel lipophilic QSI at 30 % and circa 10 %, respectively. The drug‐loaded SqNPs showed improved biofilm penetration and enhanced efficacy in relevant biological barriers (mucin/human tracheal mucus, biofilm), leading to complete eradication of PA biofilms at circa 16‐fold lower Tob concentration than Tob alone. This study offers a viable therapy optimization and invigorates the research and development of QSIs for clinical use., Breaking through: Tob and QSI (1) co‐loaded squalenyl hydrogen sulfate nanoparticles (SqNPs) are shown to act on all stages of P. aeruginosa infections to eradicate bacterial infection [(a–c) and (e)] and penetrate biofilm, preventing its formation and recurrence (d).

Amphiphilic polymer-based drug delivery systems hold potential in enhancing pharmacokinetics and therapeutic efficacy due to their ability to simultaneously codeliver different drugs in a controlled manner. We propose here a facile method for synthesizing a new amphiphilic polymer, farnesylated glycol chitosan (FGC), which self-assembles into nanoparticles upon being dispersed in aqueous media. The characteristics of FGC nanoparticles, in particular the size, could be tuned in a range from 200 to 500 nm by modulating the degree of farnesylation and the pH and polymer concentration during particle preparation. Carrier capacity, release kinetics, and surface modification of the established system were investigated using different model compounds. The colloids were biocompatible and stable at biologically relevant pH values. The interactions between the carriers and human mucus were examined by multiple particle tracking, which revealed that ∼80% of the particles remain immobilized within the mucus matrix. These results postulate FGC as a versatile drug delivery platform.

In article number 2004369, Martin Empting and colleagues describe a new generation of dual‐loaded nanoparticles enabling efficient eradication of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. The squalene‐based nanocarrier facilitates co‐delivery of a novel pathogenspecific Quorum Sensing Inhibitor (QSI) together with the standard‐of‐care antibiotic tobramycin. The QSI itself shows high anti‐virulence efficacy, favorable DMPK and no overt safety pharmacology. When applied as the nanoparticle formulation the QSI potentiates biofilm eradication capabilities of tobramycin by at least 32‐fold. [Image: see text]

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) infections can be notoriously difficult to treat and are often accompanied by the development of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Quorum sensing inhibitors (QSI) acting on PqsR (MvfR) – a crucial transcriptional regulator serving major functions in PA virulence – can enhance antibiotic efficacy and eventually prevent the AMR. An integrated drug discovery campaign including design, medicinal chemistry‐driven hit‐to‐lead optimization and in‐depth biological profiling of a new QSI generation is reported. The QSI possess excellent activity in inhibiting pyocyanin production and PqsR reporter‐gene with IC50 values as low as 200 and 11 × 10−9 m, respectively. Drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics (DMPK) as well as safety pharmacology studies especially highlight the promising translational properties of the lead QSI for pulmonary applications. Moreover, target engagement of the lead QSI is shown in a PA mucoid lung infection mouse model. Beyond that, a significant synergistic effect of a QSI‐tobramycin (Tob) combination against PA biofilms using a tailor‐made squalene‐derived nanoparticle (NP) formulation, which enhance the minimum biofilm eradicating concentration (MBEC) of Tob more than 32‐fold is demonstrated. The novel lead QSI and the accompanying NP formulation highlight the potential of adjunctive pathoblocker‐mediated therapy against PA infections opening up avenues for preclinical development., The discovery and profiling of a novel Pseudomonas aeruginosa‐targeting Quorum Sensing Inhibitor (QSI) with high anti‐virulence efficacy, favorable DMPK and no overt safety pharmacology is reported. The in vivo target engagement of the lead QSI in a mucoid lung‐infection mouse model is demonstrated. Importantly, the application of a state‐of‐the‐art squalene‐based nanocarrier formulation boosts tobramycin susceptibility of biofilms.

The pH- and temperature-responsive pentablock copolymers that could form in situ hydrogels, composed of pH-responsive polyamide and temperature-responsive poly(e-caprolactone)-b-poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(e-caprolactone) (PCL-b-PEG-b-PCL), have been synthesized. The pH-responsive polyamide blocks containing diamide linkages were synthesized using condensation polymerization of adipic acid dihydrazide and phthalic anhydride; whereas, temperature-responsive PCL-b-PEG-b-PCL was synthesized by ring-opening polymerization of e-caprolactone in the presence of bifunctional PEG macroinitiator. Pentablock copolymer was then synthesized by the chemical conjugation of carboxylic acid-terminated pH-responsive copolymer to the chain end of temperature-responsive triblock copolymer through ester bond formation. The pKa values of pH-sensitive polyamide, measured using titration method, varied depending on the average molecular weight of polymers. In aqueous solutions, the pentablock and triblock copolymers formed spherical micelles and their particle sizes were found to be 55 to 100 nm. The pentablock copolymer exhibited pH- and temperature-induced sol-to-gel phase transition. At high pH and low temperature, the copolymers were freely soluble even at 20 wt% concentration and form stable hydrogel at the physiological condition (pH 7.4, 37 °C). Furthermore, the sol-to-gel window of the pentablock copolymers was controlled by varying the composition of polyamide to PCL/PEG and covers the physiological region. Overall, these results suggest that the sharp physicochemical change of the pentablock copolymers may be exploited in controlled delivery applications.

Despite the enormous potential of nanomedicine, the search for materials from renewable resources that balance bio-medical requirements and engineering aspects is still challenging. This study proposes an easy method to make nanoparticles composed of oxidized starch and chitosan, both isolated from natural biopolymers. The careful adjustment of C/N ratio, polymer concentration and molecular weight allowed for tuning of particle characteristics. The system’s carrier capability was assessed both for anti-infectives and for nucleic acid. Higher starch content polyplexes were found to be suitable for high encapsulation efficiency of cationic anti-infectives and preserving their bactericidal function. A cationic carrier was obtained by coating the anionic polyplex with chitosan. Coating allowed for a minimal amount of cationic polymer to be employed and facilitated plasmid DNA loading both within the particle core and on the surface. Transfection studies showed encouraging result, approximately 5% of A549 cells with reporter gene expression. In summary, starch-chitosan complexes are suitable carriers with promising perspectives for pharmaceutical use.

The majority of the currently used and developed anti-infectives are poorly water-soluble molecules. The poor solubility might lead to limited bioavailability and pharmacological action of the drug. Novel pharmaceutical materials have thus been designed to solve those problems and improve drug delivery. In this study, we propose a facile method to produce submicrocarriers (sMCs) by electrostatic gelation of anionic ß-cyclodextrin (aß-CD) and chitosan. The average hydrodynamic size ranged from 400 to 900 nm by carefully adjusting polymer concentrations and N/C ratio. The distinct host-guest reaction of cyclodextrin derivative is considered as a good approach to enhance solubility, and prevent drug recrystallization, and thus was used to develop sMC to improve the controlled release profile of a poorly soluble and clinically relevant anti-infective ciprofloxacin. The optimal molar ratio of ciprofloxacin to aß-CD was found to be 1:1, which helped maximize encapsulation efficiency (∼90%) and loading capacity (∼9%) of ciprofloxacin loaded sMCs. Furthermore, to recommend the future application of the developed sMCs, the dependence of cell uptake on sMCs size (500, 700, and 900 nm) was investigated in vitro on dTHP-1 by both flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. The results demonstrate that, regardless of their size, an only comparatively small fraction of the sMCs were taken up by the macrophage-like cells, while most of the carriers were merely adsorbed to the cell surface after 2 h incubation. After continuing the incubation to reach 24 h, the majority of the sMCs were found intracellularly. However, the sMCs had been designed to release sufficient amount of drug within 24 h, and the subsequent phagocytosis of the carrier may be considered as an efficient pathway for its safe degradation and elimination. In summary, the developed sMC is a suitable system with promising perspectives recommended for pulmonary extracellular infection therapeutics.