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Powered flight was fundamental to the establishment and radiation of birds. However, flight has been lost multiple times throughout avian evolution. Convergent losses of flight within the ratites (flightless paleognaths, including the emu and ostrich) often coincide with reduced wings. Although there is a wealth of anatomical knowledge for several ratites, the genetic mechanisms causing these changes remain debated. Here, we use a multidisciplinary approach employing embryological, genetic, and genomic techniques to interrogate the mechanisms underlying forelimb heterochrony in emu embryos. We show that the initiation of limb formation, an epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) in the lateral plate mesoderm (LPM) and myoblast migration into the LPM, occur at equivalent stages in the emu and chick. However, the emu forelimb fails to subsequently proliferate. The unique emu forelimb expression of Nkx2.5, previously associated with diminished wing development, initiates after this stage (concomitant with myoblast migration into the LPM) and is therefore unlikely to cause this developmental delay. In contrast, RNA sequencing of limb tissue reveals significantly lower Fgf10 expression in the emu forelimb. Artificially increasing Fgf10 expression in the emu LPM induces ectodermal Fgf8 expression and a limb bud. Analyzing open chromatin reveals differentially active regulatory elements near Fgf10 and Sall-1 in the emu wing, and the Sall-1 enhancer activity is dependent on a likely Fgf-mediated Ets transcription factor-binding site. Taken together, our results suggest that regulatory changes result in lower expression of Fgf10 and a concomitant failure to express genes required for limb proliferation in the early emu wing bud., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

In developing avian embryos, the right and left ductus arteriosi (DA) allow for a shunt of systemic venous return away from the lungs to the body and chorioallantoic membrane (CAM). Unlike in mammals where the transition from placental respiration to lung respiration is instantaneous, in birds the transition from embryonic CAM respiration to lung respiration can take over 24h. To understand the physiological consequences of this long transition we examined circulatory changes and DA morphological changes during hatching in the emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae), a primitive ratite bird. By tracking microspheres injected into a CAM vein, we observed no change in DA blood flow between the pre-pipped to internally pipped stages. Two hours after external pipping, however, a significant decrease in DA blood flow occurred, evident from a decreased systemic blood flow and subsequent increased lung blood flow. Upon hatching, the right-to-left shunt disappeared. These physiological changes in DA blood flow correspond with a large decrease in DA lumen diameter from the pre-pipped stages to Day 1 hatchlings. Upon hatching, the right-to-left shunt disappeared and at the same time apoptosis of smooth muscle cells began remodeling the DA for permanent closure. After the initial smooth muscle contraction, the lumen disappeared as intimal cushioning formed, the internal elastic lamina degenerated, and numerous cells underwent regulated apoptosis. The DA closed rapidly between the initiation of external pipping and hatching, resulting in circulatory patterns similar to the adult. This response is most likely produced by increased DA constriction in response to increased arterial oxygen levels and the initiation of vessel remodeling., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Evolution involves interplay between natural selection and developmental constraints. This is seen, for example, when digits are lost from the limbs during evolution. Extant archosaurs (crocodiles and birds) show several instances of digit loss under different selective regimes, and show limbs with one, two, three, four or the ancestral number of five digits. The 'lost' digits sometimes persist for millions of years as developmental vestiges. Here we examine digit loss in the Nile crocodile and five birds, using markers of three successive stages of digit development. In two independent lineages under different selection, wing digit I and all its markers disappear. In contrast, hindlimb digit V persists in all species sampled, both as cartilage, and as Sox9- expressing precartilage domains, 250 million years after the adult digit disappeared. There is therefore a mismatch between evolution of the embryonic and adult phenotypes. All limbs, regardless of digit number, showed similar expression of sonic hedgehog (Shh). Even in the one-fingered emu wing, expression of posterior genes Hoxd11 and Hoxd12 was conserved, whereas expression of anterior genes Gli3 and Alx4 was not. We suggest that the persistence of digit V in the embryo may reflect constraints, particularly the conserved posterior gene networks associated with the zone of polarizing activity (ZPA). The more rapid and complete disappearance of digit I may reflect its ZPA-independent specification, and hence, weaker developmental constraints. Interacting with these constraints are selection pressures for limb functions such as flying and perching. This model may help to explain the diverse patterns of digit loss in tetrapods. Our study may also help to understand how selection on adults leads to changes in development.

Abduction at the stifle joint is a common deformity upon hatching often referred to as splay leg. One possible cause hypothesized is larger yolk sacs force apart the cassowary chick’s legs (see Fig. 17). Splay leg is most common in the first 2 or 3 chicks of the season. Usually 1 leg is affected but both can be involved. Treatment is generally successful with bandaging techniques. This is done by hobbling with bandage tape. (above the hock) for 3 days and observing closely for correct alignment.

The chick, Gallus gallus, is the traditional model in avian developmental studies. Data on other bird species are scarce. Here, we present a comparative study of the embryonic development of the chick and the emu Dromaius novaehollandiae, a member of Paleognathae, which also includes the ostrich, rhea, tinamou, kiwi, and cassowary. Emu embryos ranging from Hamburger and Hamilton (HH) equivalent stages 1 to 43 were collected and their gross morphology analyzed. Its early development was studied in detail with time-lapse imaging and molecular techniques. Emu embryos in general take 2-3 times longer incubation time to reach equivalent chicken stages, requiring 1 day for HH2, 2.5 days for HH4, 7 days for limb bud initiation, 23 days for feather germ appearance, and approximately 50-56 days for hatching. Chordin gene expression is similar in emu and chick embryos, and emu Brachyury is not expressed until HH3. Circulation is established at approximately the 27- to 30-somite stage. Forelimb buds are formed and patterned initially, but their growth is severely retarded. The size difference between an emu and a chick embryo only becomes apparent after limb bud formation. Overall, emu and chick embryogenesis proceeds through similar stages, but developmental heterochrony between these two species is widely observed., (© 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

The avian embryo has a pair of ductus arteriosi that allow the blood to bypass the pulmonary circulation prior to the initiation of lung ventilation. Our objective was to characterize the factors regulating DA tone during the later stages of development in the emu embryo. We examined in vitro the reactivity of the emu ductus from day 39 through 49 of a 50-day incubation. Steady state tension was not altered by the COX inhibitor indomethacin or the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor L-NAME. However, prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) produced a significant relaxation. Norephinephrine and U-46619 produced strong significant contractions in the emu DA and the adrenergic response matured with development. The contractile response to oxygen matured as the embryo developed with significant oxygen-induced contraction on days 45 and 49, but not on day 39 of incubation. The Kv channel inhibitor 4-aminopyridine induced the contraction of the day 48-49 ductus of similar magnitude as the oxygen-induced contraction. The oxygen-induced contraction was reversed by the reducing agent DTT and the electron transport chain inhibitor rotenone. These results suggest that while the emu DA responds to PGE(2), locally produced PGE(2) are not the important regulators of vessel tone. Additionally, relaxation upon addition of the mitochondria electron transport chain inhibitor rotenone suggests that the mitochondria might be acting as vascular oxygen sensors in this system through the production of reactive oxygen species to stimulate the oxygen-induced contraction in a similar fashion to mammals.

During hatching, there is a maturation of the mechanisms controlling the respiratory physiology involved in endotherm in precocial avian species. Here we examined the timing of the development of an endothermic response of oxygen uptake (MO2) to an alteration of ambient temperature (T(a)) in a model precocial species, the preterm and hatching emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae). Late stage pre-pipped and pipped embryos and hatchlings were measured for responses of MO2 and shell or skin temperature (T(s)) to altered T(a) (DeltaT(a)). MO2 remained unchanged in pre-pipped and internally pipped (IP) embryos at the end of 1.5h exposure to DeltaT(a) of +/-10 degrees C. Externally pipped (EP) embryos responded to a cooling and a warming exposure with marked increase and decrease in MO2, as hatchlings responded to DeltaT(a) with an endothermic change in MO2. The demonstration of the endothermic inverse metabolic response first appearing in EP embryos suggests that pre-EP embryos may also possess the ability to produce the endothermic inverse metabolic response, but they are restricted by the eggshell gas conductance. Late pre-pipped and IP embryos were measured again for responses of [Formula: see text] to DeltaT(a) in air and then in a 40% O(2) environment. The metabolic response of pre-pipped embryos at 90% of incubation was partially altered by switching from air to hyperoxia. IP embryos responded to DeltaT(a) in 40% O(2) with apparent inverse changes in MO2. The late stage emu embryo possesses the ability to produce an endothermic metabolic response at an earlier stage of development than in chickens, but this response is limited by the eggshell gas conductance.

Parental investment in eggs and, consequently, in offspring can profoundly influence the phenotype, survival and ultimately evolutionary fitness of an organism. Avian eggs are excellent model systems to examine maternal allocation of energy translated through egg size variation. We used the natural range in emu Dromaius novaehollandiae egg size, from 400 g to >700 g, to examine the influence of maternal investment in eggs on the morphology and physiology of hatchlings. Female emus provisioned larger eggs with a greater absolute amount of energy, nutrients and water in the yolk and albumen. Variation in maternal investment was reflected in differences in hatchling size, which increased isometrically with egg size. Egg size also influenced the physiology of developing emu embryos, such that late-term embryonic metabolic rate was positively correlated with egg size and embryos developing in larger eggs consumed more yolk during development. Large eggs produced hatchlings that were both heavier (yolk-free wet and dry mass) and structurally larger (tibiotarsus and culmen lengths) than hatchlings emerging from smaller eggs. As with many other precocial birds, larger hatchlings also contained more water, which was reflected in a greater blood volume. However, blood osmolality, hemoglobin content and hematocrit did not vary with hatchling mass. Emu maternal investment in offspring, measured by egg size and composition, is significantly correlated with the morphology and physiology of hatchlings and, in turn, may influence the success of these organisms during the first days of the juvenile stage.

Our understanding of avian embryonic cardiovascular regulation has been based on studies in chickens. The present study was undertaken to determine if the patterns established in chickens are generally applicable to the emu, a ratite bird species. We studied cardiovascular physiology over the interval from 60% to 90% of the emu's 50-day incubation period. During this period, embryonic emus exhibit a slight fall in resting heart rate (from 171 beats min(-1) to 154 beats min(-1)) and a doubling of mean arterial pressure (from 1.2 kPa to 2.6 kPa). Exposures to 15% or 10% O(2) initially decreased heart rate during the first period of emu incubation studied [60% of incubation (60%I)] but increased heart rate in the 90%I group. Arterial pressure responded to hypoxia with an initial depression (-1.6 kPa) at 60%I and 70%I but showed no response during the later periods of incubation (80%I and 90%I). In addition, tonic stimulation of both cholinergic and adrenergic (alpha and beta) receptors was present on heart rate at 70%I, with the cholinergic and beta-adrenergic tone increasing in strength by 90%I. Arterial pressure was dependent on a constant beta-adrenergic and constant alpha-adrenergic tone from 60%I to 90%I. A comparison with embryonic white leghorn chickens over a similar window of incubation revealed that emus and white leghorn chickens both possess an adrenergic tone on heart rate and pressure but that only emus possess a cholinergic tone on heart rate. Collectively, these data indicate that the maturation of cardiovascular control systems differs between white leghorn chickens and emus, inviting investigation of additional avian species to determine other patterns.

Emu eggs weigh approximately 600 g and have an incubation duration (ID) of approximately 50 days. The egg mass is approximately 10-fold heavier than the chicken egg and the ID is approximately 2.5-fold longer. Daily changes in mean heart rate (MHR) of emu embryos were previously determined, but further measurement was needed to investigate the species-specific behavior of cardiac rhythm for comparison with other species. In the present study, we continuously measured the electrocardiogram of emu embryos while maintaining adequate gas exchange through the eggshell and determined instantaneous heart rate (IHR) during the last 2-7 days of incubation until hatching or death. The MHR over 1-min intervals was calculated from IHR data in order to present continuous developmental patterns of heart rate (HR) in a single graph and 24-h recordings of HR in a single panel, showing the HR trend over a prolonged period. However, neither circadian nor ultradian rhythms of HR were shown in these figures or by power spectrum analysis. The IHR distinctively fluctuated and the fluctuations were mainly comprised of three patterns of irregular HR accelerations in embryos that hatched. Respiratory sinus arrhythmia also occurred in perinatal embryos. During the final stages of the perinatal period, short-term, repeated, large accelerations of IHR appeared, which signaled imminent hatching and has been reported for chick embryos. IHR fluctuations in embryos that failed to hatch tended to become inactive towards death.

Growth hormone (GH), thyroxine (T4) and tri-iodothyronine (T3) are known to be involved in the regulation of growth and development in a variety of avian species. It has been suggested that an absence of GH and thyroid hormones in ostriches is the cause of their neoteny, a phenomenon in which juvenile characteristics are retained into adulthood. Neoteny is typical of all ratites, the single group of flightless birds that includes the ostrich, but similar endocrine studies have not been performed for other members of the group, such as the emu. To test the neoteny hypothesis further, in the present study we measured the plasma concentrations of T4, T3 and GH in emus during embryonic development and from hatching to 1 year of age. Concentrations of T4 and GH increased during the last weeks of incubation, whereas concentrations of T3 were highly variable. After hatching, the concentrations of both thyroid hormones were high during the first 3 days of life and then fell to a constant low level. Plasma concentrations of GH were high at the time of hatching and decreased gradually over the first 22 weeks of age; thereafter, the concentrations of GH were highly variable. No correlation was observed between hormone concentrations and live weight at any time. These results support the hypothesis that thyroid function is abnormally low in ratites, whereas patterns of GH secretion are similar to those observed in other birds. Dysfunction of the thyroid axis could explain, in part, the neotenous physical aspect of adult emus.

1. Daily changes in embryonic heart rate (HR) of emu were determined non-invasively at 36 degrees C by acoustocardiography (ACG) during the last 30% of artificial incubation (predicted incubation time is 50 d). 2. The pattern of daily changes in mean HR of hatched embryos decreased from about 175 bpm to about 140 bpm towards the end of incubation. 3. The mean HR at 80% of incubation (ca. 170 bpm) was close to the value predicted from an allometric equation reported previously for precocial domesticated birds. 4. ACG could measure embryonic HR even during the external pipping period. 5. If the artificial external pipping procedure is timed correctly after internal pipping, it might aid the embryos in hatching. However, further investigation into this aspect is needed.