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Autoimmune connective tissue diseases are a group of immune disorders, characterized by different clinical features, which affects not only the skin but also different organs and systems. Such diseases include: rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, Sjögren’s syndrome, systemic sclerosis, dermatomyositis and polymyositis. However, there are patients that fulfil the diagnostic criteria of more than one disorder, thus supporting the concept of the so called “overlap syndromes”. The aim of this review is to present the history, clinical and immunologic hallmarks of these overlap syndromes. Such conditions are scleromyositis, lupus erythematosus/lichen planus overlap, Sharp’s syndrome, Rhupus syndrome, Rowell’s syndrome, Reynolds syndrome and Senear-Usher syndromes. Patients with these syndromes usually do not meet most of the diagnostic criteria of “classic” connective tissue diseases and this usually causes diagnostic difficulties. Overlap syndromes are commonly treated with corticosteroids, hydroxychloroquine and immunosuppressant drugs as a first-line treatment. The new therapeutic molecules that precisely interact with immune mechanisms will require accurate diagnosis and a better understanding of the pathogenesis of the overlap syndromes.

Lupus erythematosus is an autoimmune connective tissue disorder showing a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations.

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic recurrent inflammatory skin disease in patients with atopy. Atopy itself, is defined as a predisposition to develop immune response with overproduction of immunoglobulin E to low doses of allergens. AD is one of the most common skin disorders in the developed world, affecting up to 20% of children and about 3% of adults. The pathogenesis of the disease is complex, with both genetic and environmental factors playing a significant role in it. Clinically, hallmarks of atopic dermatitis include dry, itchy skin and various cutaneous efflorescence, compatible to dermatitis or eczema. Atopic dermatitis subdivides into three morphological variants manifesting during infancy, childhood and adulthood. Various environmental factors and associated diseases may have serious influence on the clinical course or may trigger disease relapses. The aim of this review article is to serve as a comprehensive overview of the etiology, pathogenesis, clinical course and diagnosis, as well as potential challenges facing the successful treatment of atopic dermatitis.

Erythema multiforme (EM) is an acute immune-mediated disease with multifactor etiology, which presents with symmetric target-like lesions on the skin. Probably the most common etiological factor of EM is viral infections, particularly herpes simplex virus (HSV). Herpes-associated erythema multiforme (HAEM) is an acute exudative dermatosis, caused mostly by HSV-1 and much rarely by HSV-2. A 44-year-old female patient with herpes associated erythema multiforme was consulted with initial appearance of typical target lesions on the dorsal surface of both hands, after long history of labial herpes episodes. The diagnostic algorithm included routine laboratory tests, histological examination and serologic test for HSV-1 and 2. Our first choice of treatment was acyclovir 5 x 200 mg/24 h and dexamethasone 4 mg/24 h, however due to increased anxiety and tachycardia reported by patient the corticosteroid therapy was discontinued and promethazine was initiated. The patient responded well to the therapeutic regimen and at the follow-up visit was in clinical remission. In conclusion, the diagnosis of HAEM is mainly clinical, when the patient develops target lesions and coexisting HSV infection is detected.

Graham-Little-Piccardi-Lassueur syndrome (GLPLS) is a rare syndrome characterized by the triad of cicatricial alopecia of the scalp, non-cicatricial alopecia of the axilla and groin and follicular lichen planus eruptions on the trunk and extremities. GLPLS is considered to be a variant of lichen planopilaris. We report two cases that have fulfilled all of the criteria for GLPLS. The first case was a 71-year-old woman, admitted to the Department of Dermatology for pruritic perifollicullar erythema and scaling of the scalp, cicatricial scalp alopecia and hair loss of the axilla and pubic region for five months. Subsequently, follicular hyperkeratotic eruptions and hyperpigmented macules on the skin of the chest and abdomen appeared. The second case was a 48-year-old man with pruritic follicular papules on the face, trunk and extremities for four months. All of the laboratory examinations in both patients were within normal limits. No alternation in the general condition of the patients was observed. Histological examinations in both patients confirmed the diagnosis GLPLS. The patients were treated with systemic and local corticosteroid resulting in marked improvement of the skin lesions; however, cicatricial scalp alopecia showed no response to the treatment.

Neurofibromatosis type I is an autosomal dominant genetic disorder with an incidence of about 1 in 3000 births. Apart from the typical skin involvement NF1 may affect multiple organs with ocular, neurological, skeletal and cardiovascular manifestations. We present a case of a 38-year-old man with multiple café-au-lait macules and hundreds of neurofibromas disseminated on the trunk and extremities dating from childhood. To establish the diagnosis and to exclude any complications we performed multiple examinations, including skin biopsy, laboratory investigations, ophthalmologic assessment, consultations with a neurologist, internist and orthopedist, etc. The treatment of cutaneous NF1 is mainly symptomatic. Surgical excision aims to achieve cosmetic results. Recently novel and perspective conservative therapies have been investigated. In order to ensure better outcome for the patients with NF1 long-term multi-disciplinary approach is advised.

The group of congenital limb overgrowth syndromes associated with vascular malformations include various disorders, often with variable clinical expression. Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome is the most common syndrome in this group, compared to other similar disorders such as Proteus, Parkes-Weber, Sturge-Weber, Cobb, Maffucii and CLOVES syndromes. We present a case of a 55-year-old male who presented with swelling, pain, heaviness, numbness and increased local temperature, involving the right upper extremity and the right side of the chest wall and associated with a livid erythema. The patient had several comorbidities including arterial hypertension and ischemic heart disease. He also had a family history of diabetes mellitus. A multidisciplinary team-based treatment approach, including physicians with expertise in various medical and surgical specialties was applied with the patient being “the unifying focus” of all these experts and their efforts. A personal approach tailored to the patient’s preferences was the key to a successful treatment.

Background: Abnormal secretion of TNF-α is known to play a role in the pathogenesis of dermatomyositis and systemic lupus erythematosus.

Pathogenetic-based topical treatment with statins that target the mevalonate pathway and cholesterol biosynthesis was recently shown to be effective in disseminated porokeratosis.8 Here we performed molecular genetic analysis of skin samples of eight patients with disseminated porokeratosis. (a) Before treatment, the patient presented porokeratotic lesions on the arms and legs. Two novel SSH1 mutations in Chinese patients with disseminated superficial actinic porokeratosis and immunohistochemical analysis of anti-Slingshot homolog 1 antibody in one typical patient. [Extracted from the article]

The group of idiopathic inflammatory myopathies (IIM) include various disorders of skeletal muscles with or without skin involvement. The most common types are dermatomyositis (DM), polymyositis (PM), inclusion body myositis (IBM) and necrotizing autoimmune myopathy (NAM). Dermatomyositis subdivides into various clinical forms such as juvenile, amyopathic or paraneoplastic dermatomyositis, scleromyositis, overlap or anti-synthetase syndromes, etc.

Системная красная волчанка (СКВ) является гетерогенным аутоиммунным заболеванием, в патогенезе которого принимают участие разные иммунные механизмы. За последние годы накопилось достаточно большое количество данных о применении иммунных препаратов, содержащих антитела против TNF- α, BlyS, CD20, CD22, IL-6R и комплимента в лечении СКВ, в которых независимо от сообщаемых хороших результатов отсутствуют категорические данные об их эффективности и безопасности. Данное обозрение стремится обобщить результаты в этой области и поискать перспективы новых, более эффективных терапевтических стратегий в лечении данного заболевания в комбинации с другими иммуномодулирующими препаратами.

Aortoiliac occlusive disease (AIOD) is non-inflammatory obstructive vasculopathy commonly affecting patients with advanced atherosclerosis, diabetes mellitus, or elevated cholesterol levels, and subjects with other risk factors such as cigarette smoking.Two Caucasian patients (a 55-year-old woman and a 56-year-old man), with ulcerous cutaneous lesions of AIOD are reported. In both cases, medical history comprises initial lower limb claudication, multiple painful ulcers along the legs and absence of superficial femoral artery pulse. Severe obstruction of both infrarenal aorta and iliac arteries on the left side was demonstrated by contrast angiography and Doppler ultrasonography.The evolution of the disease showed some characteristic findings, including pyoderma gangrenosum-like ulcerations as the initial cutaneous manifestation of AIOD, multiple painful ulcers along the lower extremities, and aorto-iliac occlusive disease due to atherosclerosis.Early diagnosis and surgical reconstruction of vessels in patients with AIOD improved quality of life and limb salvage rates., (This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Introduction: Dermoscopy is a noninvasive and easy to apply technique that allows in vivo magnification of the skin and thus observation of morphologic structures invisible to the naked eye. Recently, it gained popularity for evaluation of inflammatory skin conditions. In the field of connective tissue diseases, dermoscopy has been used mainly as a simple and accessible substitute of nailfold capillaroscopy., Objectives: The aim of the present study is to expand the application of dermoscopy in patients with dermatomyositis (DM) beyond the usual nailfold examination. A clinico-dermoscopic correlation between clinical signs of skin affection and dermoscopic features is also suggested., Methods: A total of 29 patients with DM were enrolled in this descriptive prospective study, conducted over a 3-year period. Dermoscopy was performed by a DermLite DL1 dermatoscope on polarization mode, attached to One Plus 3T camera. The following skin lesions were examined: periungual affection, scalp DM, Gottron papules, palmar papules, poikiloderma and auricular changes., Results: Dermoscopy detected predominantly advanced nail fold capillary changes - giant capillaries (79%), microhemorrhages (46%) and avascular areas (25%). The most prevalent trichoscopic features were enlarged tortuous capillaries (64%), interfollicular scales (50%) and peripilar casts and tufting (36%). Among the other skin lesions assessed in this study - Gottron papules were present in 20 patients, poikiloderma in 11, palmar papules in 4 and auricular lesions in 4 patients., Conclusions: The use of dermoscopy for clinical evaluation of skin lesions in DM enhances diagnostic accuracy and elucidates poorly known characteristics of the disease., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None., (©2022 Pozharashka et al.)

Background: Decreased expression of the T cell receptor (TCR) ζ-chain has been reported in autoimmune diseases. Recent evidence suggests that this deficiency may be due to polymorphisms in the CD3Z (CD247) gene and/or due to promoter hypermethylation., Methods: Altogether 131 subjects - 36 with dermatomyositis (DM) and 95 healthy controls were genotyped for rs1052230 G > C and rs1052231 T > A polymorphisms using TaqMan assay. The rs840015 G > A polymorphism was analyzed by direct sequencing. The promoter methylation status was analyzed by Sanger sequencing of bisulfite converted DNA., Results: The rs1052230GC genotype and C allele and the rs1052231TA genotype and T allele were found to correlate with photosensitivity as well as the rs1052230C/rs1052231T haplotype. The rs1052231TA genotype was found to be associated with cutaneous disease. The rs840015GG genotype was found increased among patients with DM, leading to increased OR 2.4. On the contrary, the rs840015GA genotype appeared to be protective for the development of DM. From the 11 cytosine-phosphate-guanine (CpG) islands analyzed, only the 8th island showed a difference in its methylation due to the polymorphism rs840015 G > A within this island, as our results suggest. In this way the presence of AA genotype led to no methylation and the presence of the GG genotype was associated with hemimethylation., Conclusion: The CD247 rs1052230 G > C and rs1052231 T > A polymorphisms appeared to have a disease-modifying role. The rs840015GA genotype being associated with reduced methylation has a protective role for the development of dermatomyositis and our results suggest that CpG related single nucleotide polymorphisms may play an important role in autoimmunity.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a multifactorial autoimmune disease and polymorphisms in the cytokine genes and their receptors are thought to influence its development. The aim of this case-control study was to investigate the association of the IL-17A rs2275913, IL-17RC rs708567 and TGFB1 rs1800469 polymorphisms with SLE, its clinical manifestations and the polymorphisms influence on the IL-17A serum levels. Altogether 59 SLE patients with lupus nephritis and 95 healthy controls were genotyped by TaqMan assay. Serum levels were determined by Human IL-17A Platinum ELISA kit. From the studied polymorphisms, only TGFB1 T allele was found to be associated with SLE. Within the patient group, IL-17A GG genotype and TGFB1 -509T allele showed an association with the neurological disease and IL-17RC CC genotype appeared to be associated with lupus arthritis. The IL17A serum levels in the SLE and control groups (7.24 pg/ml and 5.76 pg/ml, respectively) did not show any statistical difference. A weak correlation between IL17A levels and SLEDAI-2K was observed. Our results indicate that IL-17A rs2275913, IL-17RCrs708567 and TGFB1 rs1800469 polymorphisms might play a role in the susceptibility and the clinical manifestations of SLE and IL-17A serum levels should be monitored in the course of the disease. The identification of subsets of SLE with an IL-17-driven disease could improve the therapeutic approach leading to more precise personalized treatment., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Ultraviolet (UV) therapy is an effective and well-tolerated therapeutic method for various dermatologic conditions due to its antiproliferative and immunosuppressive effects. Contemporary phototherapy includes broadband UVB, narrowband UVB, UVA1, PUVA, and excimer laser therapy. The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic has resulted in the closure of many patient care facilities, including phototherapy units worldwide. Home phototherapy, thalassotherapy, and other UV therapy modalities are an alternative for many patients with chronic dermatoses. We highlighted possible interactions of UV therapy effects and the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, and focused on organization and measures against transmission of infections in phototherapy units. Dermatology departments have reopened their units, assessing the risks and benefits for patients, optimizing safety regulations, and adhering to the rules for disinfection., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest None., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Autoimmune connective tissue diseases are a heterogeneous group of clinical entities sharing a common feature-an impairment of structural components like collagen and elastin, arising by autoimmune mechanisms. Because most patients are on a long-term immunosuppressive therapy, which renders them vulnerable to infections, a new challenge appears in front of physicians in the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) era. Immune mechanisms are substantial for the control and ceasing of viral infections, and their impairment may cause serious complications; however, data from immunosuppressed transplant patients do not reveal a higher frequency or diseases' severity in those infected by COVID-19. Several immunotherapies used to treat autoimmune connective tissue diseases favorably modulate the immune response of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2)-infected patients. The present review highlights the problems of susceptibility, severity, and therapeutic options in patients with autoimmune connective tissue diseases during the COVID-19 pandemic. The relationship between autoimmune connective tissue diseases and COVID-19 infection is explained with antiviral protection genes expression, hypercytokinemia, and lymphohistiocytosis/macrophage activation mechanisms. Recommendations concerning therapy for prevention during the pandemic period or in case of concomitant COVID-19 infection are also presented. Clinical trials are ongoing regarding COVID-19 therapy blocking the cytokine response. © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Dear Editor, Paraneoplastic dermatomyositis is a distinct clinical variant of dermatomyositis (DM) in which the typical cutaneous features and muscle weakness appear before, simultaneously, or after the diagnosis of an internal malignancy. It occurs in approximately one-third of patients with DM, predominantly adults, after the age of 40 (1). Different neoplasms have been described in association with DM, the most common of which are lung, breast, ovarian, gastrointestinal, prostate, and bladder cancers. The gender distribution of cancer type corresponds roughly to that of the general population (1,2). We report the case of a 58-year-old man who presented with facial heliotrope erythema, periorbital edema, Gottron's papules over the interphalangeal and metacarpophalangeal joints, and Gottron's sign on the elbows (Figure 1). The patient also exhibited some less frequent skin signs of DM, such as shawl sign on the upper back and shoulders and V-sign on the neck and chest. Apart from the rash, he complained of weight loss, adynamia, dysphagia, cough, and scant expectoration, which he reported experiencing over a 3-month period. The muscle involvement consisted of proximal muscle weakness and had appeared a month after the skin rash. The histology of the skin lesion revealed epidermal atrophy, vacuolar degeneration of the basal keratinocytes, and perivascular and periadnexal lymphocytic infiltrate in the upper dermis (Figure 2). Laboratory examination found increased creatine kinase (2822 U/L) and liver enzymes, anemia, and leukocytosis. Screening for antinuclear antibodies and anti-Jo1 autoantibodies were both negative. The diagnosis of trichinosis was excluded via serologic examination. The impaired general condition of the patient led to a prompt paraneoplastic screening. Abdominal sonography detected hepatomegaly. Computed tomography (CT) of the abdomen and pelvis visualized a mass in the distal part of the esophagus, narrowed lumen of the gastric cardia, enlarged gastric lymph nodes, lung and liver metastases, and ascites (Figure 3). The diagnosis of paraneoplastic DM in association with an advanced, metastatic, primary gastric carcinoma was established. Palliative surgery and chemotherapy were proposed to the patient, but he refused both. A systemic therapy with methylprednisolone 60 mg/daily and azathioprine 100 mg/daily was initiated, aiming to alleviate the progressively worsening muscle weakness, but proved ineffective. The patient died two months later of combined respiratory and heart failure. There are multiple prediction factors, such as cutaneous signs, laboratory data, and disease progression, which may direct the physician towards the possibility of paraneoplastic DM. Some atypical cutaneous lesions, such as cutaneous necrosis or vasculitis, hyperkeratotic follicular papules, vesiculo-bullous lesions, and flagellate erythema, are seen more frequently in cancer-associated DM (3,4). None of these were present in our patient. Pruritus is also described as a paraneoplastic sign (5). Some authors consider the increased erythrocyte sedimentation rate and C-reactive protein to be of predictive value for malignancy. Myositis-specific autoantibodies anti-TIF1-γ and anti-NXP-2, among the numerous novel serological markers for DM, are clearly associated with the presence of neoplasia (6,7). Unfortunately, we were unable to test for those autoantibodies. The symptom of dysphagia is a hallmark of paraneoplastic dermatomyositis and usually represents a manifestation of muscle weakness (8). In our case, it was rather a reflection of the endoluminal tumor, although it may also be a combination of both factors. In their study, Bowerman et al. investigated the risk of cancer development in different DM subtypes (9). They included 201 patients with adult-onset DM, 142 of with classic DM and 59 with the clinically amyopathic type. The estimated prevalence of malignancy-associated classic and clinically amyopathic DM were 9.9% and 1.7%, respectively. The authors concluded that older age and classic DM represent independent risk factors for malignancy-associated DM within 2 years of disease onset. Given that early diagnosis significantly impacts prognosis in patients with cancer-associated DM, recent studies support blind screening for internal malignancy (10). Leatham et al. performed a retrospective analysis of 400 patients with DM, finding a total of 53 cancers in 48 patients (some of the patients had two separate neoplasms). Among the group of paraneoplastic DM cases, 17 cancers were diagnosed via purely blind screening in patients with a lack of concerning history or physical examination. The authors claimed that the most informative tests were mammography and CT scanning. The above-mentioned predictive factors for paraneoplastic DM represent a useful tool for the clinician. Although it is generally accepted that patients with DM should undergo some type of cancer screening, there is no consensus regarding methods or frequency. New data suggest that blind screening in asymptomatic patients might be of great importance for early diagnosis and treatment of patients with cancer-associated DM.

Introduction: Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and dermatomyositis (DM) share a similar pathogenesis, and genetic, hormonal, and environmental factors are known to trigger the autoimmune process. The X-ray repair cross-complementing genes (XRCC1 and XRCC3) are known to play a central role in mammalian DNA repair processes. Evidence suggests that impaired DNA repair efficiency is implicated in the development of autoimmune diseases. This case-control study investigates the association between the XRCC1 Arg194Trp (C>T) and Arg399Gln (G>A) polymorphisms and the susceptibility to DM and SLE in Bulgarian patients., Methods: Altogether 88 patients, 55 with SLE and 33 with DM, and 94 unrelated healthy controls were included in this study., Results: None of the polymorphisms showed an association with SLE, DM, or their clinical parameters. The allele and genotype frequency of the two single nucleotide polymorphisms was similar to those found in other healthy Caucasian populations., Conclusions: Our results indicate that the XRCC1 rs1799782 Arg194Trp and rs25487 Arg399Gln polymorphisms do not play a role in the susceptibility to SLE and DM.

Dear Editor, Rowell's syndrome is a rare disease, characterized by the appearance of erythema multiforme (EM)-like lesions in patients with lupus erythematosus. It was initially reported by Rowell (1) in 1963 and its existence as a separate clinical entity is currently under debate (2,3). A few cases may have been induced by drugs such as systemic antimycotics, antibiotics, anticonvulsants, and more recently proton pump inhibitors (PPIs). CASE REPORT We present the case of a 67-year-old woman with subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus (SCLE) and EM-like lesions who fulfilled all the criteria for Rowell's syndrome. The patient had lupus arthritis for two years and was treated with oral methylprednisolone 8 mg/day and hydroxychloroquine 200 mg/day. She started receiving 20 mg of omeprazole daily for gastroprotection. The patient also had arterial hypertension with no current treatment, osteoporosis, and an L1 vertebral fracture. The dermatological examination revealed multiple erythematous infiltrated plaques involving mainly the sun-exposed areas (neck, chest, upper back, and shoulders). Cutaneous lesions had an annular or target pattern and a tendency to form hemorrhagic crusts and scales at the margins (Figure 1, A). The mucous membranes were unaffected. Histological examination (hematoxylin and eosin ×200) found epidermal atrophy, vacuolar degeneration of the basal layer, and sparse perivascular lymphocytic infiltrate in the dermis - features corresponding to lupus erythematosus (Figure 2, A). Single eosinophilic necrotic keratinocytes characteristic for erythema multiforme were observed in the epidermis (Figure 2, B). Direct immunofluorescence (IF) from lesional skin showed granular deposits of C3 on the dermo-epidermal junction. Lupus band test from sun-protected, nonlesional skin was negative. On indirect IF a speckled pattern antinuclear antibodies (ANA) with >1:1280 titers were detected. Anti-Ro (>200 U/mL) and anti-La (>200 U/mL) antibodies were also positive. The blood cell count and differential analysis were within reference ranges. The 24-hour urine protein test showed a non-significant proteinuria - 0.36 g/24h. Photo-testing was impossible considering the extent of the skin lesions. The therapeutic approach consisted of increasing the hydroxychloroquine dose to 400 mg/day, substituting PPI with famotidine 20 mg/day p.o. and ceftriaxone 2 g/day for the superinfection with Ps. aeruginosa, which led to a clinical improvement (Figure 1, B). The methylprednisolone dose remained unchanged due to already existing severe adverse effects. DISCUSSION The diagnosis was based on Zeitouni et al.'s classification (4). The three main criteria are as follows: lupus erythematosus, EM-like lesions, and speckled pattern of ANA. Our patient met all three major and one minor criteria, namely the presence of anti-Ro and anti-La antibodies. As for the other minor criteria, RF was negative and no chilblains were found. Although there was a continuous time lapse (more than 1 year) between the initiation of omeprazole intake and the diagnosis of Rowell's syndrome, we suggest that the connection is probable. For instance, the latency differs depending on the incriminated medication in drug induced SCLE. Longer periods are reported for diuretics and calcium blockers, while the time interval is shorter for chemotherapeutic drugs and antimycotics (5). Our suspicions were further confirmed by the fact that the lesions improved promptly within a month after discontinuation of omeprazole and doubling the dose of hydroxychloroquine. PPIs are reported to be a major cause of drug-induced SCLE (6,7). According to Laurinaviciene et al., the most common drugs involved are PPIs, thiazide diuretics, antifungals, chemotherapeutics, statins, and antiepileptics (6). However, very few cases of Rowell's syndrome are found to be drug-related. The culprit drugs include: oral terbinafine (8,9), norfloxacin (10), sodium valproate (11) and esomeprazole (12) (Table 1). CONCLUSION Despite the common clinical and immunological features shared between SCLE, drug-induced SCLE and EM, Rowell's syndrome seems to be a separate entity rather than a coincidental association. Finally, according to our knowledge this case would be the second of Rowell's syndrome due to PPIs.