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This inquiry collects the legislative measures that Italy enacted throughout the course of the pandemic in connection with international law obligations, i.e. either by enforcing, derogating or breaching international law. In this respect, the objective of the analysis is twofold. On the one hand, it is aimed at outlining Italy’s attitude vis-à-vis international law and what role the latter legal system has played within the context of the crisis. On the other hand, it intends to offer a survey tool for comparative legal analysis to those who may wish to review the experience gained and the lessons learned from the pandemic. To this end, this investigation will consider only measures that fall under international health law, international trade law, international investment law and international human rights law as these regimes have been most affected in the last two years.

The present comment deals with the much-debated issue of the denial of foreign States’ jurisdictional immunity for acta iure imperii resulting in serious violations of human rights. This question came to the fore in Italy in the early 2000s and has since led to a stark contrast between the International Court of Justice, on the one hand, and Italian courts, in particular the Constitutional Court, on the other. Against this backdrop, these pages are aimed at analysing Order No. 39391/2021 of the Italian Corte di Cassazione, which concerns a proceeding for the enforcement of a US judgment condemning Iran to pay damages to the victims of the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Based on the reasoning of the decision, this comment argues that Italian courts, while praiseworthy for attempting to protect fundamental human rights, seem to have renounced speaking the language of international law.

Sporidesmin A is the most important mycotoxin produced by the fungus Pithomyces chartarum that grows on pasture litter during late summer and autumn. This fungi produces several variants of sporidesmin (from A to J), with sporidesmin A accounting for 80-90% of congeners. Sporidesmins affect the hepatobiliary system of ruminants and lead to the retention of phytoporphyrin which, reacting with light in peripheral tissues, causes the photosensitivity reaction known as "facial eczema". The disease produces losses in animal production and serious animal welfare problems in farmed ruminants in New Zealand and in warm temperate regions of the world. Zinc in several forms and with high dose rates is used as a control measure for facial eczema, but it poses safety issues. Other additives for sporidesmins control in feeds have not been evaluated. The use of adsorbing agents to reduce the exposure to mycotoxins by decreasing their bioavailability is a valuable strategy to cope with mycotoxins. To this scope, this study examines the ability of a clay based agent in sequestering sporidesmins from liquid mediums at physiological pH values (2.5-6.5). The adsorption behaviour of the clay for sporidesmins was studied by equilibrium isotherms as a function of pH, clay dosage, initial toxin concentration, equilibrium time, and temperature. Physico-chemical, kinetic and thermodynamic parameters related to the adsorption process were calculated, including the adsorbent dosage to achieve a 50 (C50) and 100% (C100) of toxin adsorption, the maximum adsorption capacity (Bmax) and the affinity (KL), the rate constants, and the ?G°, ?H°, ?S° parameters. The results showed that the clay exhibited high affinity for sporidesmins at ruminal pH (6.5), while its adsorption capacity slightly decreased with increasing pH from 2.5 to 6.5. In particular, the values of C50 and C100, expressed as mg of clay/µg of sporidesmin A, were 10 and 64 mg/µg at pH 2.5 and 14 and 51 mg/µg at pH 6.5. Bmax values (ng of sporidesmin A adsorbed/mg of clay) calculated at pH 2.5 and 6.5, were 54 and 26 ng/mg, respectively. KL values (L/mg of sporidesmin A) were 16 and 7*102 L/mg at pH 2.5 and 6.5. Kinetic studies suggested that sporidesmin A was adsorbed in less than 60 min following the pseudo second order model. Considering that ruminants are susceptible to sporidesmin A contaminated feed on a µg/kg basis, the results of this study suggest that the clay is promising for use as an effective adsorbent for sporidesmin decontamination.

L'attività di ricerca e collaborazione tra CNR-ISPA e NFT è tesa a valutare, in vivo, l'efficacia di un nuovo preparato (qui denominato Multi-Mycotoxins Detoxifying Agent - MMDA) a ridurre i rischi di contaminazione dei mangimi da micotossine. Per lo svolgimento delle attività di ricerca relative al Programma No.1, il CNR-ISPA si è avvalso della collaborazione con l'Università di Torino per verificare la capacità di un nuovo additivo alimentare a ridurre l'assorbimento e ad aumentare l'escrezione fecale di alcune micotossine (nello specifico aflatossine e zearalenone) presenti in mangimi per polli, artificialmente contaminati con le tossine di interesse. Questo nuovo additivo consentirà la prevenzione e riduzione del rischio da esposizione a micotossine alimentari nelle specie avicole allevate e contribuirà a migliorare il benessere degli animali allevati. L'utilizzo di animali nel presente protocollo si è reso necessario per il raggiungimento degli obiettivi proposti; tuttavia, essi sono stati allevati secondo procedure standard di allevamento nel rispetto della salute e benessere animali. Lo studio è stato condotto presso l'azienda zootecnica della Struttura Didattica Speciale Veterinaria dell'Università di Torino, previa autorizzazione da parte del Comitato Etico dell'Università (Approval number: 319508/2017-PR).

In addition to the immunomodulatory and antimicrobial properties, yeast cell walls (YCWs) are widely used as feed additives for mycotoxin control. YCW are known to adsorb ZEA, while data on other toxins are conflicting. In this study, a new YCW product was developed to sequester a large spectrum of mycotoxins (AFB1, ZEA, OTA and FB1), and its efficacy was assessed first in vitro by the isotherm approach, and then in vivo with rats. The product at 0.5% w/v dosage adsorbed simultaneously up to 80% ZEA, 65% OTA, 40% FB1 and 10% AFB1 from multi-mycotoxins buffers containing 1 µg/mL of each toxin. The adsorption isotherm approach allowed us to study the adsorption mechanism and to determine the parameters affecting mycotoxin uptake, i.e., type and toxin concentration, pH of the medium and adsorbent concentration. For the study with rats (0.3 kg initial BW), each mycotoxin was administered singularly by a single oral intragastric bolus containing the mycotoxin +/- the product. Two groups of rats were used for each mycotoxin: the control groups received the mycotoxins at the dose of 12, 1, 0.5 and 0.12 mg/kg BW for FB1, ZEA, OTA or AFB1, respectively; while the treated groups received the same dose of mycotoxins with the YCW (0.5% w/w of feed consumption). Feed intake was 100 g feed/kg BW. After toxin administration, rats were housed individually in metabolic cages to collect urine at different time points (4-72h for AFB1, ZEA and FB1; 4-320 h for OTA). The mycotoxin biomarkers (AFM1, ZEA and its metabolites of phase I biotransformation i.e., ?-ZOL, ?-ZOL and ?-ZAL, OTA and FB1) were determined in urine by in-house validated HPLC/UHPLC methods. Mycotoxin content in urine was normalized to the respective creatinine concentration. Toxicokinetic parameters, i.e., area under the curve over 72/320h (AUC0->t) and maximal urine concentration (Cmax) were calculated for target mycotoxins/metabolites and were used to compare control and treatment groups. The YCW reduced the urinary excretion of ZEA, FB1 and OTA, but it was ineffective for AFB1. In particular, AUC was significantly reduced by -50% for OTA (p=0.014) and -42% for FB1 (p=0.048), while Cmax value was reduced by -79% (p

Yeast cell wall (YCW) products are used worldwide as alternatives to antibiotics growth promoters for health and performances improvement in livestock. The success of yeast and YCW products as feed additives in farm animals' nutrition relies on their capacity to bind enteropathogenic bacteria and on their immunomodulatory activity. In vivo studies report their anti-infectious activity on Gram-positive pathogens like clostridia. However, the in vitro antimicrobial activity of YCW products seems to be limited to some Gram-negative enteropathogens, and literature lacks in vitro evidences for antimicrobial effect of YCW products against Clostridium perfringens. This study aims to measure the antimicrobial activity of YCW products on C. perfringens. Five different YCW products were assayed for their capacity to inhibit the growth of C. perfringens, by analyzing the growth kinetics of the pathogen. All YCW products inhibited the growth of the pathogen, by reducing the growth rate and the maximum growth value and extending the lag phase duration. The effect on the growth parameters was product and dosage dependent. The most effective YCW (namely YCW2), at the minimum effective concentration of 1.25 mg/mL, increased the lag phase duration by 3.6 h, reduced the maximum growth rate by >50%, and reduced the final cell count by 10(2) colony-forming unit per milliliter in 24 h, with respect to the control. YCW products did not show a strain-dependent impact on C. perfringens growth when tested on different strains of the bacterium.

The removal of mycotoxins from contaminated feed using lactic acid bacteria (LAB) has been proposed as an inexpensive, safe, and promising mycotoxin decontamination strategy. In this study, viable and heat-inactivated L. acidophilus CIP 76.13T and L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus CIP 101027T cells were investigated for their ability to remove aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEA), and deoxynivalenol (DON) from MRS medium and PBS buffer over a 24 h period at 37 °C. LAB decontamination activity was also assessed in a ZEA-contaminated liquid feed (LF). Residual mycotoxin concentrations were determined by UHPLC-FLD/DAD analysis. In PBS, viable L. acidophilus CIP 76.13T and L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus CIP 101027T cells removed up to 57% and 30% of ZEA and DON, respectively, while AFB1 and OTA reductions were lower than 15%. In MRS, 28% and 33% of ZEA and AFB1 were removed, respectively, OTA and DON reductions were small (≤15%). Regardless of the medium, heat-inactivated cells produced significantly lower mycotoxin reductions than those obtained with viable cells. An adsorption mechanism was suggested to explain the reductions in AFB1 and OTA, while biodegradation could be responsible for the removal of ZEA and DON. Both viable LAB strains reduced ZEA by 23% in contaminated LF after 48 h of incubation. These findings suggest that LAB strains of L. acidophilus CIP 76.13T and L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus CIP 101027T may be applied in the feed industry to reduce mycotoxin contamination.

In the field of animal protection, the use of adsorbent materials to decontaminate mycotoxin contaminated diets will become an effective strategy to counteract mycotoxin problems in animal production if these materials have the ability to bind combinations of mycotoxins. So far, most substances used as mycotoxin binders (in particular clays) fail in sequestering structurally different mycotoxins. This study examined the ability of 51 agricultural-by products to adsorb mycotoxins from liquid mediums simulating the pH values (3 and 7) that can be found in the GI tract of humans and monogastric animals. Mechanism of mycotoxin adsorption was studied by isotherm adsorption experiments. Grape pomaces, artichoke wastes, and almond hulls were selected as promising biosorbents, being quite effective towards AFB1, ZEA, and OTA. Their adsorption was not affected by medium pH, and the adsorbed fraction was not released when pH rose from acid to neutral values. FB1 was adsorbed to a lesser extent, while DON was not adsorbed. For selected agricultural by-products, maximum adsorption capacities calculated by the Freundlich, the Langmuir, and the Sips isotherms ranged from 1.2 to 2.9 µg/mg for AFB1, 1.3 to 2.7 µg/mg for ZEA, 0.03 to 2.9 µg/mg for OTA, and 0.01 to 1.1 µg/mg for FB1. In conclusion, this study shows that selected agricultural by-products can find technological applications as feed/food additives for mycotoxin reduction. They represent a low cost, and potentially valuable source of phenolic antioxidants and undegradable fibre, which can promote health also through their ability to "trap" mycotoxins in the digestive tract

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by a wide array of diverse fungal species, mostly belonging to the three genera Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium. All species of livestock are affected by mycotoxins, being the monogastrics (swine, horses) the most sensitive, followed by poultry and ruminants. Controlling mould growth and mycotoxin production is very important to feed manufacturer and livestock producer. A variety of decontamination/detoxification methods show potential for commercial application. However, large-scale, practical, and costs-effective methods for a complete mycotoxin decontamination are currently not available. No single decontamination method that is equally effective against the variety of naturally occurring mycotoxins has been developed. The use of feed additives that reduce the exposure of the animals to these mycotoxins are regarded as a way to improve animal welfare. These additives are defined as substances (e.g. clay mineral, enzyme, micro-organism, yeast cell wall) that are mixed into feed and then adsorb or denature (biologically detoxify) mycotoxins in the digestive tract of animals. This chapter will present an overview on advances and criticisms regarding the use of mycotoxin-detoxifying agents, focusing on adsorbent materials for mycotoxin removal from feedstocks.

Background Community participatory interventions mobilizing women of childbearing age are an effective strategy to promote maternal and child health. In 2017, we implemented this strategy in Gulu Northern Uganda. This study explored the perceived impact of this approach on women's capability. Methods We conducted a qualitative study based on three data collection methods: 14 in-depth individual interviews with participating women of childbearing age, five focus group discussions with female facilitators, and document analysis. We used the Sen capability approach as a conceptual framework and undertook a thematic analysis. Results Women adopted safe and healthy behaviors for themselves and their children. They were also able to respond to some of their family's financial needs. They reported a reduction in domestic violence and in mistreatment towards their children. The facilitators perceived improved communication skills, networking, self-confidence, and an increase in their social status. Nevertheless, the women still faced unfreedoms that deprived them of living the life they wanted to lead. These unfreedoms are related to their lack of access to economic opportunities and socio-cultural norms underlying gender inequalities. Conclusion To expand women's freedoms, we need more collective political actions to tackle gender inequalities and need to question the values underlying women's social status.

Background South Sudan has one of the highest maternal mortality ratios in the world, at 789 deaths per 100,000 live births. The majority of these deaths are due to complications during labor and delivery. Institutional delivery under the care of skilled attendants is a proven, effective intervention to avert some deaths. The aim was to determine the prevalence and explore the factors that affect utilization of health facilities for routine delivery and postnatal care in Torit County, South Sudan. Methods A convergent parallel mixed method design combined a community survey among women who had delivered in the previous 12 months selected through a multistage sampling technique (n = 418) with an exploratory descriptive qualitative study. Interviews (n = 19) were conducted with policymakers, staff from non-governmental organizations and health workers. Focus group discussions (n = 12) were conducted among men and women within the communities. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression were conducted to determine independent factors associated with institutional delivery. Thematic analysis was undertaken for the qualitative data. Results Of 418 participants who had delivered in the previous 12 months, 27.7% had institutional deliveries and 22.5% attended postnatal care at least once within 42 days following delivery. Four or more antenatal care visits increased institutional delivery 5 times (p p = 0.021). Women were more likely to plan and prepare for home delivery than for institutional delivery and sought institutional delivery when complications arose. Perceived poor quality of care due to absence of health staff and lack of supplies was reported as a major barrier to institutional delivery. Women emphasized fear of discrimination based on social and economic status. Unofficial payments such as soap and sweets were reported as routine expectations and another major barrier to institutional delivery. Conclusion Interventions to stop unofficial payments and discrimination based on socio-economic status and to increase access to ANC, delivery services and PNC are needed.

ObjectivesThis study examines health facility utilization for pregnancy and delivery care and the health system challenges, in the light of renewed conflict in 2016, in Torit County, South Sudan. We collected monthly facility data retrospectively on total Antenatal Care (ANC) visits, institutional deliveries, major obstetric, and neonatal complications treated from January 2015 to December 2016. We compared 2015 data with that of 2016 when conflict re-started. We also conducted a descriptive qualitative study based on key informant interviews and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) to explore the health system challenges. We used a thematic approach to analyse qualitative data. Results ANC visits declined by 21% between 2015 and 2016. The proportion of expected births that occurred in facilities declined from 23.6% in 2015 to 16.7% in 2016 (p< 0.001) while the proportion of obstetric complications treated in facilities declined from 58.9% in 2015 to 43.9% in 2016 (p

Biosorption using agricultural by-products has been proven as a low-cost and safe way to sequester mycotoxins. Few agricultural by-products have been studied for their efficacy in adsorbing simultaneously a large range of mycotoxins. The present work compared the ability of 51 agricultural by-products to adsorb mycotoxins from liquid mediums simulating physiological pH values, and it studied the mechanism for mycotoxin adsorption by isotherm adsorption experiments.; Results: Grape pomaces, artichoke wastes, and almond hulls were selected as promising biosorbents for mycotoxins, being quite effective towards aflatoxin B1 (AFB1 ), zearalenone (ZEA), and ochratoxin A (OTA). Their adsorption was not affected by medium pH, and the adsorbed fraction was not released when pH rose from acid to neutral values. Fumonisin B1 (FB1 ) was adsorbed to a lesser extent, and deoxynivalenol adsorption was not recorded. For the selected biosorbents, maximum adsorption capacity calculated by the best fitting model (Freundlich, Langmuir, or Sips equation) ranged from 1.2 to 2.9 µg mg-1 for AFB1 , 1.3 to 2.7 µg mg-1 for ZEA, 0.03 from 2.9 µg mg-1 for OTA, and 0.01-1.1 µg mg-1 for FB1 .; Conclusion: This study confirms that some agricultural by-products can find technological applications as feed/food additives for mycotoxin reduction. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.; © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

The world was never so close to reach the polio eradication: only 37 cases notified in 2016 in only three countries, but the game is not yet at the end. The risk of polio outbreaks in the EU is smaller than it has ever been in the past, but it is not so small that we can ignore it. The EU MS must remain alert and plan and prepare for managing polio events or outbreaks because of the possible dire consequences. The IPV only vaccination schedule universally applied in EU has achieved satisfactory coverage, but constantly leaving small accumulating pockets of susceptible individuals. Moreover the IPV only schedule is not an absolute barrier against poliovirus silent transmission as demonstrated in the recent Israel outbreak. The availability of annually revised S.O.P. from WHO GPEI on the identification and response of a polio event, without local poliovirus transmission or a polio outbreak with sustained transmission, helps and challenge EU countries to update their polio national preparedness plans. The EU/EEA area, in fact, is a peculiar area regarding the polio risk both for its vaccination policy, the large polio vaccines manufactures and the constant immigration from areas at polio high risk, but also EU include cultural and financial potentials crucial to sustain the polio end game strategy and reach the benefit of a world without polio risk. Poliovirus eradication will continue to be challenged as long as there is the worldwide presence of polioviruses in laboratories and vaccine production plants. Most of the world's OPV vaccines are produced in the EU and many laboratories and research centers store and handle polio viruses. EU Member States are engaged actively in implementing the poliovirus biocontainment plans that are part of the polio eradication strategy and to certify the destruction of poliovirus strains and potentially contaminated biological materials.

Mycotoxins are known worldwide as fungus-produced toxins that adulterate a wide heterogeneity of raw feed ingredients and final products. Consumption of mycotoxins-contaminated feed causes a plethora of harmful responses from acute toxicity to many persistent health disorders with lethal outcomes; such as mycotoxicosis when ingested by animals. Therefore, the main task for feed producers is to minimize the concentration of mycotoxin by applying different strategies aimed at minimizing the risk of mycotoxin effects on animals and human health. Once mycotoxins enter the production chain it is hard to eliminate or inactivate them. This paper examines the most recent findings on different processes and strategies for the reduction of toxicity of mycotoxins in animals. The review gives detailed information about the decontamination approaches to mitigate mycotoxin contamination of feedstuffs and compound feed, which could be implemented in practice.

Yeast cell wall (YCW) products are used worldwide as alternatives to antibiotics growth promoters for health and performances improvement in livestock. The success of yeast and YCW products as feed additives in farm animals' nutrition relies on their capacity to bind enteropathogenic bacteria and on their immunomodulatory activity.

Yeast cell wall (YCW) products are currently used as substitutes to antibiotic growth promoters, to improve animal performances, and to reduce the incidence of infectious diseases in livestock. They are claimed to bind enteropathogens, thus interfering with their colonization in the intestinal mucosa. Although the anti-infectious activity of YCW products on Gram-positive pathogens like

Since 2013, bentonite in the form of dioctahedral smectite is an additive authorised in the EU as a substance for the reduction of the contamination of feed by aflatoxins. Several studies indicate a big difference in the effectiveness of smectites in sequestering aflatoxins. A clear correlation between mineralogical and physico-chemical properties of smectites and aflatoxin adsorption has not been well established. In the effort to identify the most critical mineralogical, chemical, and physical properties that affect aflatoxin adsorption by smectites, 29 samples of bentonites obtained from different sources around the world were evaluated. “As received” samples were divided into two main groups, i.e. hydrothermal (n=14) and sedimentary (n=15) bentonites depending on their geological origin. The characterization studies showed that all samples contained dioctahedral smectite as major mineral; a moderate CEC value (60-116 cmol/kg); the presence of iron; a small organic matter content; a near-neutral pH; and a fine and uniform particle size (in vitroadsorption studies showed that they also differed in a significant manner in adsorbing aflatoxin B1(AFB1). A correlation between geological origin and AFB1adsorption capacity was found (p1adsorption by all samples was negatively and linearly correlated to the extent of desorption, and sedimentary smectites were significantly more effective than hydrothermal smectites in keeping bound the adsorbed fraction of the toxin (p 1adsorption by smectites correlated positively with sodium content and swell index, but negatively with d001-value, magnesium and calcium contents. In conclusion, it seems that the geological origin of smectite is a useful guide for the selection of bentonites for AFB1detoxification. Sedimentary bentonites containing sodium/swelling-smectite should be preferred to hydrothermal samples as potential aflatoxin binders. Taking into account the geographical origin of our samples, this approach should be applicable to bentonites worldwide.

Yeast cell wall (YCW) products are currently used as substitutes to antibiotic growth promoters, to improve animal performances, and to reduce the incidence of infectious diseases in livestock. They are claimed to bind enteropathogens, thus interfering with their colonization in the intestinal mucosa. Although the anti-infectious activity of YCW products on Gram-positive pathogens like Clostridium perfringens has been reported in vivo, in vitro evidences on the adsorption of C. perfringens by YCW fractions are not yet available. Preliminary results showed that purified YCW products exert antimicrobial activity toward C. perfringens. Using the adsorption isotherm approach, we measured the ability of YCW products in adsorbing C. perfringens, thus reducing its viability. Dosages of YCW products >1 mg/mL adsorbed 4 Log colony-forming unit (CFU)/mL of C. perfringens in buffered solution. The maximum adsorption of the bacterium was reached in 3 h, whereas only one product of four YCW products retained the adsorption up to 6 h. The analysis of equilibrium isotherms and adsorption kinetics revealed that all products adsorb C. perfringens in a dose- and time-dependent manner, with high affinity and capacity, sequestering up to 4 Log CFU/mg of product. The determination of adsorption parameters allows to differentiate among adsorbents and select the most efficient product. This approach discriminated among YCW products more efficiently than the antimicrobial assay. In conclusion, this study suggests that the ability of YCW products in reducing C. perfringens viability can be the result of an adsorption mechanism.

Bentonite-based products are selective in adsorbing mycotoxins, being quite effective for AFB1 and FB1, but ineffective for other mycotoxins (namely, ZEA, DON, T-2 and OTA). Within the framework of the European Project MycoKey (Grant Agreement No.678781), an innovative bentonite-based material (bio-organoclay) was developed to act as a multi-mycotoxin binder. A bentonite containing Na-smectite as major mineral was modified by an acid-activation process followed by a functionalization with an organic, non-toxic modifier. The process was optimized at lab level, and optimal conditions (geological origin and physico-chemical properties of smectites, type and concentration of chemical agents, temperature, time of contact) were identified. Under optimal conditions, the new bio-organoclay sequestered in vitro more than 95% of AFB1, FB1, OTA, and ZEA in a large range of pH values (3-9). The adsorptions of mycotoxins occurred simultaneously with high capacity and affinity as determined by isothermal adsorption studies. Thereafter, the bio-organoclay was tested for its efficacy in reducing the urinary excretion of mycotoxins in rats using the biomarker approach. AFM1, ZEA and its metabolites of phase I biotransformation (?-ZOL, ?-ZOL and ?-ZAL), OTA and FB1 were analyzed in urine by in-house validated UPLC methods. For each toxin, two groups of rats (0.3 kg, initial body weight) were considered: the first group was used as control (C) and received a single intragastric bolus containing the mycotoxin; the second group (T) received the mycotoxin supplemented with the bio-organoclay (0.5% w/w feed consumption). Rats were housed individually in metabolic cages to collect urine at different time points (4-72h for AFB1, ZEA and FB1; 4-320h for OTA). Normalized urinary excretion data of mycotoxins/metabolites were expressed as nmol mycotoxin/nmol creatinine and presented as mean±SD. Area under the curve (AUC0®t) over 72/320h and maximal urine concentration (Cmax) were calculated for target mycotoxins/metabolites and were used to compare control and treated groups. Results of toxicokinetic excretion of mycotoxins showed that the bio-organoclay significantly reduced urinary excretion of AFM1, ZEA, FB1 and OTA (P values < 0.05). The use of this bio-organoclay as feed additive can be considered a valid approach to reduce mycotoxins bioavailability in animals exposed to the main mycotoxins. This product can be considered safe, as it has been obtained using reagents that are listed in the European Union Register of Feed Additives (EC Regulation, No.1831/2003).

Herpes zoster (HZ) is an acute viral illness characterized by a vesicular rash with unilateral distribution, which can also result in severe complications such as post-herpetic neuralgia (PHN), ophthalmic zoster, stroke or other neurological complications. The estimate incidence in Europe ranges between 2.0 and 4.6 cases per 1,000 person-years, with a sharp increase in >50 year-old subjects. Currently, treatment options for HZ are only partially effective in limiting the acute phase, while the management of complications is complex and often unsatisfactory. The total burden of the disease and the high costs related to its diagnostic and therapeutic management led researchers to develop a new preventive approach through a live attenuated virus vaccine. The currently available vaccine, with a high antigen content, is safe, well tolerated and reduces the incidence of HZ, PHN and the burden of illness. Several countries have introduced this vaccination, albeit with different recommendations and methods of financing. Taking into account the barriers to this immunization registered in some areas (difficulty of vaccine distribution, lack of physician recommendations, the cost of vaccine for patients, etc.), this group of Italian experts advocate that a common strategy able to guarantee a good compliance with this vaccination should be implemented. The same group addresses some practical questions concerning the use of zoster vaccine.

Biosorption using agricultural by-products has been proven as a low-cost and safe way to sequester mycotoxins. Few agricultural by-products have been studied for their efficacy in adsorbing simultaneously a large range of mycotoxins. The present work compared the ability of 51 agricultural by-products to adsorb mycotoxins from liquid mediums simulating physiological pH values, and it studied the mechanism for mycotoxin adsorption by isotherm adsorption experiments.Grape pomaces, artichoke wastes, and almond hulls were selected as promising biosorbents for mycotoxins, being quite effective towards aflatoxin BThis study confirms that some agricultural by-products can find technological applications as feed/food additives for mycotoxin reduction. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Rosin acids (RA) from coniferous trees are used in folk medicine for healing various skin infections. Despite the antimicrobial potential of RA, their poor solubility in aqueous media may limit their use. In this work RA-loaded polyethylene glycol-poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles (RA-NPs) with enhanced antimicrobial properties against foodborne bacterial pathogens were produced. RA-NPs were prepared by solvent displacement technique and characterized for relevant colloidal features by dynamic light scattering, laser Doppler anemometry and transmission electron microscopy. Association of RA to NPs occurred with high yields (86% w/w). RA and RA-NPs (~130 nm) were strongly active against antibiotic-sensitive Gram + pathogens, i.e. Clostridium perfringens, Listeria monocytogenes and antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. However, both failed in inhibiting the growth of Gram – pathogens (Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter coli, Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica). Association to NPs enhanced the antimicrobial activity of RA. MIC, IC 50 , IC 90 , and MBC values of RA-NPs were ten-times lower than RA. RA-NPs did not change the intrinsic toxicity potential of RA. This is the first study on the enhancement of the antimicrobial activity of RA when associated to nanocarriers. This approach may be an effective strategy to produce aqueous-based RA solutions with enhanced antimicrobial activity against antibiotic-sensitive and antibiotic-resistant Gram + pathogens. The authors thank Prof. Filip Van Immerseel for providing the C. perfringens CP56 strains and ADRIA d_eveloppement for providing the strains indicated with the letters AD in this study. The authors also thank NFT S.r.l. for providing purified rosinic acids, and the i3S Scientific Platform Biointerfaces and Nanotechnology (BN) for assistance in DLS/LDAmeasurements.

Epidemics and pandemics are natural events recurring over the time: their impact can be appropriately minimised but most countries only rely on emergency response. The European Decision 1082/2013 on serious cross-border threats to health is innovative in recognising risk communication as an essential tool in coping with public health emergencies of international concern (PHEIC). The Decision serves as proper context for the EU-funded ASSET (Action plan in Science in Society in Epidemics and Total pandemics) research project that aims to create the blueprint for a better response to PHEIC, through improved forms of dialogue and better cooperation at different levels on Science-in-Society (SiS) issues (governance, engagement, ethics, gender, science education, open access). A Mobilization and Mutual Learning (MML) approach was developed through the ASSET Strategic and Action Plans toward different targets and relevant stakeholders. An integrated participatory approach needs to be recognized into the national plans for preparedness and response.

Enteroviruses (EVs) cause severe outbreaks of respiratory and neurological disease as illustrated by EV-D68 and EV-A71 outbreaks, respectively. We have mapped European laboratory capacity for identification and characterisation of non-polio EVs to improve preparedness to respond to (re)-emerging EVs linked to severe disease. An online questionnaire on non-polio EV surveillance and laboratory detection was submitted to all 30 European Union (EU)/European Economic Area (EEA) countries. Twenty-nine countries responded; 26 conducted laboratory-based non-polio EV surveillance, and 24 included neurological infections in their surveillance. Eleven countries have established specific surveillance for EV-D68 via sentinel influenza surveillance (n = 7), typing EV-positive respiratory samples (n = 10) and/or acute flaccid paralysis surveillance (n = 5). Of 26 countries performing non-polio EV characterisation/typing, 10 further characterised culture-positive EV isolates, whereas the remainder typed PCR-positive but culture-negative samples. Although 19 countries have introduced sequence-based EV typing, seven still rely entirely on virus isolation. Based on 2015 data, six countries typed over 300 specimens mostly by sequencing, whereas 11 countries characterised under 50 EV-positive samples. EV surveillance activity varied between EU/EEA countries, and did not always specifically target patients with neurological and/or respiratory infections. Introduction of sequence-based typing methods is needed throughout the EU/EEA to enhance laboratory capacity for the detection of EVs.

In the 1990s, an epidemic of cholera caused by Vibrio cholerae 01 El Tor has spread from northern Pakistan to the Mediterranean. In 1993 sporadic cases of cholera, and epidemic foci, were recorded in many countries of the southern part of Eastern Europe.

ObjectiveTo examine their implementation, we analyzed World Health Organization (WHO) and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) guidelines from 2005 to 2008 for risk communication during an emerging infectious disease outbreak, WHO and CDC reports on implementing the guidelines worldwide after the 2009 H1N1 pandemic; and a case study of a member state.MethodsA qualitative study compared WHO and CDC guidelines from 2005 to 2008 with WHO and CDC reports from 2009 to 2011, documenting their implementation during the H1N1 outbreak and assessed how these guidelines were implemented, based on the reports and Israeli stakeholders (n=70).ResultsEight risk communication subthemes were identified: trust, empowerment, uncertainty, communicating the vaccine, inclusion, identification of subpopulations and at-risk groups, segmentation, and 2-way communication. The reports and case study disclosed a gap between international guidelines and their local-level implementation. The guidelines were mostly top-down communications, with little consideration for individual member-state implementation. The WHO and CDC recommendations were not always based on formative evaluation studies, which undermined their validity.ConclusionsIn formulating effective communication strategies, the first step is to define the goal of a vaccination program. We recommend implementing conceptual elements from the most current theoretical literature when planning communication strategies and increasing organizational involvement in implementing guidelines in future health crises. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2014;0:1–12)

Although vaccination is one of the most cost-effective health care interventions, under-vaccination and variation in coverage rates lower than policy targets is rising in developed countries, partly due to concerns about vaccination value and benefits. By merging various antigens into a single product, combination vaccines represent a valuable tool to mitigate the burden associated with the numerous injections needed to protect against vaccine preventable infectious diseases and increase coverage rate, possibly through various behavioral mechanisms which have yet to be fully explored. Beyond their cost-effectiveness in protecting against more diseases with fewer injections, combination vaccines also have several other benefits, for children, their parents/carers, as well as for the health system and the population as a whole. The objectives of this review are to identify and illustrate the value of combination vaccines for childhood immunization. Evidence was classified into 2 groups: benefits for society and benefits for public health and healthcare systems. This article also highlights the value of innovation and challenges of combination vaccine development as well as the need for an increased number of suppliers to mitigate the impact of any potential vaccine shortage. Increasing public confidence in vaccines and combination vaccines is also critical to fully exploit their benefits.