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Titan is unique in the solar system, the only moon that has a dense atmosphere. The major constituents of the atmosphere, nitrogen and methane, are continuously broken apart by a combination of solar UV, impinging electrons from Saturn's magnetosphere, and a steady flow of cosmic rays. The resulting molecular fragments recombine and form a variety of new species, many of which were detected for the first time by Voyager 1. The ubiquitous, surface-hiding aerosol blanket manifests the existence of still more complex compounds. In addition to hydrocarbons and nitriles, the atmosphere is known to contain CO, CO2 and externally delivered H2O. The Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer (GCMS) on the Huygens Probe will measure the chemical composition of the atmosphere of Titan from 170 km altitude (approximately lhPa) to the surface (approximately 1500hPa) and determine the isotope ratios of the major constituents. The GCMS will also analyze gas samples from the Aerosol Collector Pyrolyser (ACP) and may be able to obtain compositional information of several surface materials. The GCMS consists of a quadrupole mass spectrometer (QP) with a secondary electron multiplier ion detector, a three-column gas chromatograph (GC) and an elaborate gas sampling system. The gas sampling system will provide atmospheric samples to the QP for nearly continuous analysis during the Probe descent and batch samples at several altitudes for GC analysis. It also contains a chemical scrubber for noble gas analysis and an enrichment cell for trace constituent enhancement. In addition to the sampling of the atmosphere periodic gas samples, derived from the pyrolysis of aerosols, will be transferred from the ACP to the GCMS for direct QP and full GCMS analysis. The QP can analyze molecular masses from 2 to 14lDalton. The nominal detection threshold is at a mixing ratio of 10E-8. Data rate is 885 bits/sec. The mass of the instrument is 17.3 kg and the energy required for operation during the descent is 110 Watt-hours.

The Galileo Probe entered the atmosphere of Jupiter on December 7, 1995. Measurements of the chemical and isotopic composition of the Jovian atmosphere were obtained by the mass spectrometer during the descent over the 0.5 to 21 bar pressure region over a time period of approximately 1 hour. The sampling was either of atmospheric gases directly introduced into the ion source of the mass spectrometer through capillary leaks or of gas, which had been chemically processed to enhance the sensitivity of the measurement to trace species or noble gases. The analysis of this data set continues to be refined based on supporting laboratory studies on an engineering unit. The mixing ratios of the major constituents of the atmosphere hydrogen and helium have been determined as well as mixing ratios or upper limits for several less abundant species including: methane, water, ammonia, ethane, ethylene, propane, hydrogen sulfide, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon. Analysis also suggests the presence of trace levels of other 3 and 4 carbon hydrocarbons, or carbon and nitrogen containing species, phosphine, hydrogen chloride, and of benzene. The data set also allows upper limits to be set for many species of interest which were not detected. Isotope ratios were measured for 3He/4He, D/H, 13C/12C, 20Ne/22Ne, 38Ar/36Ar and for isotopes of both Kr and Xe.

The composition of the jovian atmosphere from 0.5 to 21 bars along the descent trajectory was determined by a quadrupole mass spectrometer on the Galileo probe. The mixing ratio of He (helium) to H2 (hydrogen), 0.156, is close to the solar ratio. The abundances of methane, water, argon, neon, and hydrogen sulfide were measured; krypton and xenon were detected. As measured in the jovian atmosphere, the amount of carbon is 2.9 times the solar abundance relative to H2, the amount of sulfur is greater than the solar abundance, and the amount of oxygen is much less than the solar abundance. The neon abundance compared with that of hydrogen is about an order of magnitude less than the solar abundance. Isotopic ratios of carbon and the noble gases are consistent with solar values. The measured ratio of deuterium to hydrogen (D/H) of (5 +/- 2) x 10(-5) indicates that this ratio is greater in solar-system hydrogen than in local interstellar hydrogen, and the 3He/4He ratio of (1.1 +/- 0.2) x 10(-4) provides a new value for protosolar (solar nebula) helium isotopes. Together, the D/H and 3He/4He ratios are consistent with conversion in the sun of protosolar deuterium to present-day 3He.

How the terrestrial planets obtained their original endorsement of volatiles and proceeded to lose them selectively is the theme of this paper. Where good and convincing answers to these questions are still not available, the principal issues are becoming better and better understood, and thus many of the decisive measurements and calculations needed to obtain them can be well defined. In this paper our present inventories of volatiles such as the noble gases, hydrogen compounds and atmophiles such as CO2, N2, and O2 will be presented. Careful attention will be given to isotopic ratios and their significance. Escape processes past and present - blow off impact erosion, thermal and non-thermal loss of neutral and ionic species will be discussed, and the contribution of each to volatile loss assessed. It will be argued that our understanding of these processes is adequate to explain the present level of fractionation of many of the noble gases and their isotopes on all the terrestrial planets. It will also be argued that we are close to understanding loss of hydrogen well enough to assess reasonably the early abundance of water on early Venus and Mars.

Attention is given to a detailed analysis of Pioneer Venus large-probe neutral mass spectrometer data which confirm an earlier report that the abundance of Venus deuterium relative to hydrogen is two orders of magnitude larger than that of terrestrial deuterium. The D/H ratio in the bulk atmosphere of Venus today is found to be between 0.014 and 0.02. The argument that present-day HDO can be in a steady state with exogenous (cometary) sources is based on an underestimate of the hydrogen abundance and an overestimate of current escape rates. The large isotope ratio requires that Venus once had above-surface water amounting to at least a few tenths of a percent of a terrestrial ocean and has since lost almost all of the associated hydrogen.

The Pioneer Venus Large Probe Mass Spectrometer detected a large quantity of methane as it descended below 20 km in the atmosphere of Venus. Terrestrial methane and Xe-136, both originating in the same container and flowing through the same plumbing, were deliberately released inside the mass spectrometer for instrumental reasons. However, the Xe-136 did not exhibit behavior similar to methane during Venus entry, nor did CH4 in laboratory simulations. The CH4 was deuterium poor compared to Venus water and hydrogen. While the inlet to the mass spectrometer was clogged with sulfuric acid droplets, significant deuteration of CH4 and its H2 progeny was observed. Since the only source of deuterium identifiable was water from sulfuric acid, we have concluded that we should correct the HDO/H2O ratio in Venus water from 3.2 x 10(exp -2) to (5 plus or minus 0.7) x 10(exp -2). When the probe was in the lower atmosphere, transfer of deuterium from Venus HDO and HD to CH4 can account quantitatively for the deficiencies recorded in HDO and HD below 10 km, and consequently, the mysterious gradients in water vapor and hydrogen mixing ratios we have reported. The revision in the D/H ratio reduces the mixing ratio of water vapor (and H2) reported previously by a factor of 3.2/5. We are not yet able to say whether the methane detected was atmospheric or an instrumental artifact. If it was atmospheric, its release must have been episodic and highly localized. Otherwise, the large D/H ratio in Venus water and hydrogen could not be maintained.

The properties and limitations of several loss processes for atmospheric gases are presented and discussed. They include thermal loss (Jeans and hydrodynamic); nonthermal loss (all processes involve charged particles); and impact erosion, including thermal escape from a molten body heated by rapid accretion. Hydrodynamic escape, or 'blowoff', is of particular interest because it offers the prospect of processing large quantities of gas and enriching the remainder in heavy elements and isotopes. In a second part, the water budgets and likely evolutionary histories of Venus, Earth and Mars are assessed. Although it is tempting to associate the great D/H enrichment on Venus with loss of a large initial endowment, a steady state with juvenile water (perhaps from comets) is equally probable.

Spectra obtained by the ultraviolet spectrometer on the Voyager 2 spacecraft between 1 and 2.5 AU are shown to provide evidence for a very large number of 'cometesimals' with radii between a few meters and a few tens of meters in the neighborhood of the earth. The evidence consists of a component in the interplanetary Lyman-alpha radiation that decreases rapidly with heliocentric distance. It is proposed that the source consists of cometesimals which are ice-coated, porous, low-density refractory boulders that may be the building blocks of ordinary comet nuclei. It is shown that the cometesimals required to produce the observed Lyman-alpha emission can also account for all the lunar craters with diameters between 200 m and 1500 m produced during the phase 3200 million years at sites such as Mare Tranquillitatis.

High spectral resolution measurements of Comet Halley at H-alpha and OD-1 were obtained in March, 1986 using a small aperture telescope with the Fabry-Perot interferometer at the Arecibo Observatory. It is suggested that the highly structured spectral signature observed at H-alpha is due to collimation of atomic hydrogen in the inner hydrogen corona, following photodissociation of parent species, and that the emission is due to resonance fluorescence of solar Lyman-beta radiation. A feature at 6300.8 A accompanying the OD-1 emission at 6300.3 A is attributed to NH2. For a 6-arcmin field of view, a brightness for the OD-1 emission of 260 + or - 50 rayleighs is found for both March 15 and 17.

The proposal by Frank et al. (1986) that clouds of small comets periodically inject large amounts of H2O into the upper atmospheres of the earth, Venus, and Mars is examined critically, with a focus on transport and disposal mechanisms invoked to account for the large H2O masses involved. It is argued that observed parameter values (such as mixing ratios, vertical wind velocities, and H escape flows) prohibit transport by eddy, molecular diffusion, vertical avection, or coherent movement. In a reply by Frank et al., these objections are discussed in terms of an overall description of the decelerataion and penetration of a cometary water cloud, and H2O concentrations and mixing mechanisms consistent with observed values for the earth are proposed. It is suggested that an increase in cometary H2O influx could lead to concentrations attaining the frost point and to formation of a global mesospheric cloud with significant climate effects. A lower H2O influx rate for Venus (consistent with observed H loss and atmospheric H2O concentration) and relatively rapid loading of the Mars surface and atmosphere with H2O ice and vapor (followed by brief warming periods with increased exospheric H2O outflow and surface flow of liquid H2O) are considered.

Assuming solar initial elemental and isotopic ratios and a determination of the degree of fractionation occurring by competition between gravitational binding and escape, a model is developed for selective noble gas loss through escape during the growth of planetesimals to form the terrestrial planets. Of the two classes of planetesimals that can form on a time scale that is consistent with modern accretion models, one is depleted in neon while the other is neon-rich. The mechanism is noted to be capable of accounting for all known properties of the noble gas volatiles on the terrestrial planets, with only one exception, namely the Ar-36/Ar-38 ratios for Mars and the earth, which are much lower than observed.

A 40.6-cm Newtonian telescope was interfaced to the Fabry-Perot interferometer at the Arecibo Observatory to make high-spectral-resolution measurements of Comet Halley emissions at 6562.72 A (H-alpha) and 6300.3 A (O I). The atomic hydrogen outflow velocity was found to be approximately 7.9 + or - 1.0 km/s. In general, the H-alpha spectra are highly structured, and indicative of a multiple component atomic hydrogen velocity distribution. For O (1D), implied production rates of 6.44 + or - 3.0 x 10 to the 28th/s and 5.66 + or - 2.7 x 10 to the 28th/s were found on March 15 and 17, respectively.

Some aspects of the temperature structure of a runaway greenhouse on Venus are examined using one-dimensional radiative transfer techniques. It is found that there generally is a region high in the atmosphere where condensation and cloud formation can occur, while deep in the atmosphere the gas is strongly unsaturated with respect to water vapor. The necessity of including clouds introduces considerably uncertainty into the calculation of surface temperatures. Under reasonable assumptions concerning the clouds, temperatures deep in the atmosphere are high enough to produce a plastic or even molten surface, which may significantly ease the problem of explaining the loss of oxygen.

The structure and composition of the thermosphere, exosphere, and ionosphere of saturn have been determined from observations at optical and radio wavelengths mainly by instruments aboard Voyager spacecraft. Techniques for determining the vertical profiles of temperature and density and the atmospheric vertical mixing in the upper Saturn atmosphere are discussed. Radio occultation measurements and theoretical models of Saturn's ionosphere are reviewed, and attempts to interpret the measurements using the models are discussed. Finally, mechanisms of thermospheric heating are examined.

Implications for the origin and evolution of the terrestrial planets are drawn from a comparison of the Venus, earth and Mars atmosphere volatile inventories. Attention is given to the possible loss of an appreciable amount of water from Venus, in light of recent evidence for a 100-fold deuterium enrichment. Ar-40 and He-4 abundances suggest that outgassing has been inefficient for much of Venus's lifetime, in keeping with evidence for a lower level of tectonic activity on Venus than on the earth. Attention is also given to Venus's CO2 geochemistry. The picture now emerging is that of a Venus that began to evolve along a path similar to that of the earth, but suffered a catastrophic, runaway greenhouse effect early in its lifetime. How early the castastrophe occurred may be suggested by the presently low inventories of radiogenic argon and helium in its atmosphere.

The present conference concerning the study of Venus discusses stellar magnitude and albedo data for the planet, radio astronomical studies, results of the Venera 13 and 14 missions, Venus optical properties, topography, surface properties and tectonic evolution, the tectonic implications of the interior of Venus, the thermal structure, photochemistry, composition, general circulation, and electrical activity of the Venus atmosphere, and the thermal balance of the lower, middle and upper atmoshere of Venus. Also discussed are the observation and interpretation of the Venus ionosphere, its model calculation, the interaction of the solar wind with the ionosphere of Venus in light of flow field models, the origin and evolution of the Venus atmosphere, and the problem posed by rare gases in the atmosphere of Venus.

It is pointed out that the intensity of the Lyman-alpha emission is a good indicator of the principal aeronomical processes on the major planets. The high-resolution ultraviolet spectrometer aboard the Orbiting Astronomical Observatory Copernicus was used in 1980 April and May to detect the Jovian Lyman-alpha emission by spectroscopically discriminating it from other Doppler shifted Lyman-alpha emissions such as those of the geocorona, and the interplanetary medium. Taking into consideration the reported emission data, it appears that an unusually large energy input due to the particle precipitation in the auroral region must have been responsible for the large observed Lyman-alpha intensity during the Voyager encounter. At most other times, the observed Jovian Lyman-alpha intensity can be explained, within the range of statistical uncertainty, by a model that takes into consideration the solar EUV flux, the solar Lyman-alpha flux, the high exospheric temperature, and the eddy diffusion coefficient without energy input from the auroral sources.

A simple model for the rapid escape of a hydrogen thermosphere is presented in order to establish the energy-limited flux of escaping particles. The model assumes that the atmosphere is tightly bound by gravity at the lower boundary, that all the EUV is absorbed in a narrow region where the optical depth is unity, and that the main source of heating is solar EUV. The flux is limited by the amount of EUV energy absorbed, which is in turn controlled by the radial extent of the thermosphere. It is found that, regardless of the amount of hydrogen in the thermosphere, the low temperatures which accompany rapid escape limit its extent and thus constrain the flux. The results are applied to the earth and Venus, showing that the escape of hydrogen from these planets would have been energy-limiting if their primordial atmospheres contained total hydrogen mixing ratios exceeding only a few percent. This conclusion places a constraint on the theory of the origin and evolution of the planets.