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The well-being and mental health of principals is being threatened by changing working conditions such as a broader variety of roles and tasks. In this article, we argue that social capital might buffer against declining (mental) health. The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential influence of social capital, including both internal (bonding) and external (bridging and linking) social capital, on principals’ well-being. A longitudinal study was set up across three waves of data. Questionnaires were collected from 2084 Australian principals and 829 Irish principals, across six and two timepoints, respectively. The hypotheses were tested using a longitudinal path model approach using maximum likelihood estimation in lavaan for R. In line with our hypotheses, the results indicated that principals who reported higher levels of either internal or external social capital also reported higher levels of well-being. More specifically, support from colleagues outside the school and supervisor support (external social capital) and collaboration and trust in management (internal social capital) predicted well-being positively across time. The results of this study highlight the importance of having social support from colleagues and supervisors and possibilities for collaboration to maintain well-being as a school principal.

Employees’ feedback-seeking networks at work are important for employees’ learning and employability. Earlier studies often neglected the specific characteristics of the different relationships an individual employee has at work. We conduct social network analyses in seven samples to study inter-individual differences in feedback-seeking relationships in detail. We investigate 2,058 feedback-seeking relationships of 118 employees to study how similarity-attraction affects the composition of feedback-seeking networks at work and how the composition of these feedback-seeking networks influences employees’ employability. This research study aims to contribute by taking into account both the mechanisms that shape feedback-seeking networks and the effects of this on employability. The results show that similarity-attraction affects feedback-seeking in the workplace and that having a largely homogeneous feedback-seeking network has detrimental effects on employability.

Fluctuating demands and fast changing job-requirements require organizations to invest in employees so that they are able to take up new tasks. In this respect, fostering employees' employability is high on the agenda of many organizations. As a prerequisite for creating employability, many scholars have focused on the role of social informal learning. In this study, we extend this perspective and examine the relationships between task variety, social informal learning, and employability. We hypothesized that task variety is a catalyst for social informal learning, which in turn enhances employees' employability. We contribute empirical evidence for this mechanism. However, while task variety leads to social informal learning and, subsequently, the competences needed for employability, task variety also may have negative direct effects on employability. We discuss the implications of these findings for future research and practice.

The aging workforce challenges companies to keep their aging employees employable in the workforce. This paper gives an indication as to which employees are more likely to be interested in further learning and employability. Specifically, the aim of this study was to investigate the role of chronological age and achievement goal orientations for informal and formal learning and employability. Data of 167 Austrian knowledge workers were gathered via electronic questionnaires to investigate the relationships between age, achievement goal orientations, learning activities, and employability using structural equation modeling. It was found that informal learning has a significant positive relation with several dimensions of employability. Furthermore, mastery-approach goal orientation also shows a significant positive relation with informal learning and employability. In addition, age had no significant relation with the achievement goal orientations. The paper stresses the need to consider characteristics other than chronological age, such as goal orientations, when considering employees&rsquo, learning behavior and employability.

A 22-item short-form of the 47-item Employability Five-Factor instrument (Van der Heijde & Van der Heijden, 2006; Van der Heijden, De Lange, Demerouti, & Van der Heijde, 2009) was developed and validated across five empirical survey studies. The Short-Form Employability instrument has consistent and acceptable internal consistencies and a similar factor structure across all samples studied. The outcomes favor a five-dimensional operationalization of the employability construct over a one-dimensional higher-order construct, with good discriminant validity of the underlying employability dimensions. Moreover, since the five dimensions of employability all appeared to be significantly related to both objective and subjective career success outcome measures, the predictive validity of the shortened tool is promising. The Short-Form Employability instrument facilitates further scientific HRM and career research without compromising its psychometric qualities.

Purpose Employability and its components have received a lot of attention from scholars and practitioners. However, little is known about the interrelations between these different components of employability and how employees progress within their employability trajectories. Therefore, a model of such progression was constructed and tested using Van der Heijde and Van der Heijden’s (2006) employability measurement instrument. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach The propositions were tested empirically by applying a Rasch model using a sample of 167 Austrian business consultants. Findings The findings lend some support for the hypothesized progression model of employability. Specifically, the items measuring occupational expertise are largely located in the group of items that were relatively likely to be endorsed. Also, the items of personal flexibility and anticipation and optimization were, in general, less likely to be endorsed than the items of occupational expertise. Research limitations/implications The major thrust of this paper is a theoretical one. However, the empirical demonstration tentatively supports the proposed model, which implies that further, more robust longitudinal research in this direction may be a worthwhile endeavor. Practical implications By understanding which competences are important at which stage or across which stages of an individual’s career, career advisors and human resource management professionals can give more targeted advice concerning career management practices. Originality/value The present study contributes to the literature by investigating how employees may make progress within their employability trajectories.

How can (aging) individual employees continue to grow as persons, on the one hand, and contribute to their employing organizations in meaningful ways, on the other hand? In this article, we set out to study how two important instruments of human resource management—age climate and the offering of developmental measures—may help. We use path modeling to investigate the research model based on data of 208 respondents of both rural and urban regions in Austria. The results indicate that a positive organizational age climate has a positive influence on the offering of developmental measures and, subsequently, on employees’ employability. We emphasize the importance of facilitating developmental measures for staff of all ages, as well as the necessity to address the organizational age climate to successfully tackle the challenges of demographic change.

Social approaches to work-related informal learning, such as proactive feedback-seeking, help-seeking and information-seeking, are important determinants of development in the workplace. Unfortunately, previous research has failed to clearly conceptualize these forms of learning and does not provide a validated and generally applicable measurement instrument. We set out to develop and validate such a scale measuring social approaches to work-related informal learning. We collected data in four organizations in Austria and the Netherlands, with a total sample size of 895 employees. These data were used to conduct exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, which showed four distinct factors: feedback-seeking from the supervisor, feedback-seeking from colleagues, help-seeking and information-seeking. In conclusion, the scale we developed is valid in a range of contexts and thus is an appropriate tool for research as well as human resource development practice.

In this volume, mixed methods social network analysis (MMSNA) is mainly discussed as a powerful framework for generating scientific insight. In this chapter, we aim to add a different facet to the discussion by emphasizing MMSNA’s usefulness to inform organizational decision-making and consultancy. Specifically, we give three examples of consultative approaches using MMSNA that deal with themes of leadership, organizational change, and innovation. We discuss the possibilities and limitations of this method of consulting.

While the concept of mixed method social network analysis (MMSNA) is gaining in popularity, there is a notable lack of specific mixed research designs that guide the implementation of MMSNA. In this chapter, I draw from qualitative social network analysis, specifically, qualitative structural analysis, and expand it toward a mixed research design. This change, which requires relatively little additional input, fulfills several important purposes at the same time, and hence may be conducive in increasing the overall quality of a study.

Previous research has conceptually developed various strategies of mixing multiple research approaches. But how do these strategies play out in practice? In this chapter, I create a map of mixed methods social network analysis (MMSNA) research designs in education and learning research. For this, I review and code the studies that apply MMSNA in this research domain. I then use social network analysis to study how researchers sequenced qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and data analysis. This work extends and complements previous theorizing on mixed methods research designs and the empirical work undertaken by Bryman (2006). The unique perspective taken in this research allows for a flexible yet thorough discussion of mixed methods designs in education and learning research.

Across the globe researchers are using social network analysis (SNA) to better understand the visible and invisible relations between people. While substantial progress has been made in the last 20 years in terms of quantitative modelling and processing techniques of SNA, there is an increased call for SNA researchers to embrace and mix methods developed in qualitative research to understand the what, how, and why questions of social network relations. In this chapter, we will reflect on our experiences with our latest edited book called “Mixed Methods Approaches to Social Network Analysis for Learning and Education”, which contained contributions from 20+ authors. We will first review the empirical literature of Mixed Methods Social Network Analysis (MMSNA) by conducting a systematic literature review. Secondly, by using two case-studies from our own practice we will critically reflect on how we have used MMSNA approaches. Finally, we will discuss the potential limitations of MMSNA approaches, in particular given the complexities of mastering two ontologically different methods.

Managers of knowledge-intensive organizations are required to keep their knowledge and skills up to date in order to steer their companies through a volatile environment. The current demographic shift prompts the question how learning may be facilitated for increasingly older managers. In this article, we argue that the approach to informal learning at work is an important concept to predict the outcomes of managers in knowledge-intensive organizations. We set out to investigate how chronological age affects learning approaches and, in turn, learning outcomes in a sample of 139 Austrian bank managers. Results of a path analysis show that deep learning increases and surface-disorganized learning decreases learning outcomes, operationalized as performance in the last job appraisal, development of job-specific core skills, perceived career development, and subjective job performance. Furthermore, we have found that older managers more often use a surface-disorganized learning approach, which in turn ...

Background: More than ever before, school principals are dealing with stress and burnout, resulting from increasing role demands and decreasing decision latitude and autonomy. Following the Demand–Support–Constraints model, reasons for stress and burnout can be found in the lack of social support in the environment. Purpose: This longitudinal study investigates whether changes in social support from colleagues, supervisors and/or the broader community affect levels of principal stress and burnout. Sample: Approximately 26% of Australia’s school principals took part (N = 3572): primary (n = 2660) and secondary (n = 912) spread across all Australian states and territories. Age ranged between 46 and 55 years, and mean leadership experience was 12 years. Design and methods: Since stress and burnout are psychological phenomena that develop over time, a longitudinal approach was adopted. Data were collected across four waves, spread over four years, from 2011 to 2014. Results: It was found that social support predicts decreased stress and in turn burnout in school principals, however differences were found according to the type of social support. The data provide strong evidence for a positive effect of stress on burnout (e.g. the more stress at time 2, the more burnout in principals at time 3) and partial support for indirect negative effects of social support on burnout (e.g. the more support from colleagues at time 2, the less burnout in principals at time 3). However, we also found two instances of positive effects of social support from the broader community on burnout. This suggests that the more support principals receive from the broader community, the more likely they are to show burnout symptoms. This might be explained as the ‘the downside of empathy’, where principals who are strongly supported by their community might also feel more connected to that community. When their community is struggling, they are probably struggling as well. Conclusions: The findings highlight the positive impact the wider school community can play in providing supplementary professional support to the principal. Unbundling or repackaging the job responsibilities with an administrative team that shares the leadership of the school, could be part of the solution.

Purpose – The demographic shift and the rapid rate of innovations put age and employability high on policy makers’ and human resource managers’ agenda. However, the authors do not sufficiently understand the link between these concepts. The authors set out to investigate the relationship between age and employability and aim to identify motivational mediators of this relationship. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to investigate the roles of future time perspective and goal orientation. Design/methodology/approach – The authors conducted quantitative, cross-sectional survey research (n=282) in three Dutch and Austrian organizations. The authors used structural equation modeling to investigate the relationships between chronological age, future time perspective, goal orientations, and employability. Findings – Future time perspective and goal orientation strongly relate to employability. The authors found indirect relationships between age and employability via perceived remaining opportunities. Research limitations/implications – The results question the often simplistic use of chronological age in employability and human resource management research. Therefore, the authors call for more research to investigate the relationship between age and employability more deeply. Practical implications – The findings contribute new insights for the career development issues of an increasingly older workforce. This shifts the focus from age, a factor outside our control, to motivation. Originality/value – This study contributes evidence for the relationships of chronological age, future time perspective, and goal orientation with employability. It extends literature by criticizing the prevalent use of chronological age and investigating mediation effects.

Soziales Kapital – das prominenteste Konzept der diskutierten Arbeit – ist ein wichtiger Begriff in der Arbeit mit sozialen Netzwerken und stellt eine Ressource fur einzelne Netzwerkakteure dar, die ihren Spielraum fur Handlungen erweitert. Das Konzept wurde von verschiedenen Autoren aufgegriffen und entwickelt. Ich greife an dieser Stelle vier Denkrichtungen heraus, die alle auch in diesem Buch detaillierter vorgestellt werden.

We live in a world permeated by digital technologies. Still, however, this digitization is not always reflected in the learning environments of higher education institutions, which raises questions about the adequacy of the instructional outcomes. In this paper, I maintain that the concept of the inverted or flipped classroom may be a fruitful path to including learning “hands-on” with technology even in learning environments absent of any technological resources. The rationale for this proposition is that flipped elements transfer the demand for technology from the teaching environment to the student. I report on a design-based research project to put this claim to a first test. The qualitative and quantitative data collected all support the idea that flipped classroom elements may help overcome differences in terms of availability of technology in different learning environments. The implications for universities and higher education teachers are discussed. Vivimos en un mundo dominado por las tecnologías digitales. Sin embargo, esta digitalización todavía no se refleja siempre en los entornos de aprendizaje de los centros de enseñanza superior, lo cual plantea dudas acerca de la idoneidad de los resultados de la docencia. En este artículo, yo sostengo que el concepto del aula invertida puede representar una vía fructífera para incluir el aprendizaje “práctico” con tecnología incluso en entornos de aprendizaje carentes de cualquier recurso tecnológico. La fundamentación en la que se apoya esta propuesta es que los elementos invertidos trasladan la demanda de tecnología desde el entorno docente hasta el estudiante. Doy cuenta de un proyecto de investigación basado en el diseño con el fin de someter esta afirmación a una primera prueba. Todos los datos cualitativos y cuantitativos recogidos apoyan la idea de que el aula invertida puede ayudar a superar las diferencias por lo que respecta a la disponibilidad de tecnología en distintos entornos de aprendizaje. Se abordan las implicaciones para las universidades y los docentes de enseñanza superior.

In today's time of demographic change and rapid innovation, age and employability as well as the role of learning and development are high on the agenda of human resource managers and chief learning officers. However, existing research has failed to integrate these concepts in a clear model and offers little explanation of how the concepts may be linked exactly. In this conceptual paper we show how chronological age, despite its poor characteristics as a predictor, might still affect employability indirectly. Specifically, we propose that employees' motivation – in terms of future time perspective and goal orientation – and formal and informal learning activities need to be considered. Since an individual's chronological age cannot be changed, it is important to recognize these mediating variables, which may be targeted more easily by human resource development or age management initiatives.

Homophilie – die Tendenz, Beziehungen zu Individuen aufzubauen, die einem selber im Hinblick auf soziodemografische Eigenschaften oder Verhaltensweisen ahnlich sind – spielt eine wichtige Rolle fur die Entwicklung von MitarbeiterInnen-Netzwerken in Unternehmen. Diese Netzwerke werden auch zum Lernen genutzt (z. B. bei der Vergabe von gegenseitigem Feedback), doch das Potenzial dazu konnte bei homophilen Netzwerken niedrig sein, da die empfangenen Informationen limitierter und weniger innovativ sind als in heterogenen Netzwerken. In dieser Studie wurde untersucht, ob ahnliche demografische Eigenschaften und ahnliche Feedback-Praferenzen der MitarbeiterInnen die Haufigkeit beeinflussen, wie oft sie Feedback von KollegInnen einholen und als wie nutzlich sie das eingeholte Feedback empfinden. Auserdem sollte aufgezeigt werden, ob eine Team-Building-Masnahme die prognostizierten Effekte reduzieren und zu mehr Vielfaltigkeit beim Einholen von Feedback fuhren kann. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Homophilie in der Tat die Feedback-Beziehungen der MitarbeiterInnen beeinflusst und dass Team-Building-Masnahmen diese Einflusse reduzieren. Team-Building-Masnahmen sind ein probates Instrument fur das internationale Personalmanagement, um MitarbeiterInnen darin zu unterstutzen, Feedback auf Basis komplexerer Entscheidungskriterien zu suchen, um so die Performance der MitarbeiterInnen zu unterstutzen.

Die Bevolkerung der meisten Lander altert. In der vorliegenden Studie fokussiere ich auf einen Kontext, in dem der Wandel in den letzten Jahren eine besonders grose Rolle gespielt hat: den Bankensektor. Im Zuge der internationalen Finanzkrise musste hier eine grose Anzahl an Veranderungen in kurzer Zeit bewaltigt werden. Eine Gruppe von BankmitarbeiterInnen, die besonders gefordert ist, ihr Unternehmen durch dieses unbestandige Umfeld zu navigieren, sind Fuhrungskrafte. In dieser Studie untersuche ich die Lernprozesse von Fuhrungskraften in Banken im Kontext der Bankenkrise und der alternden Gesellschaft. Dabei versuche ich zu erklaren, wie sich das kalendarische Alter von MitarbeiterInnen auf das Lernen am Arbeitsplatz auswirkt.

This chapter provides a reflective account of the studies in Part II of this volume, with a focus on discussing their empirical and methodological contributions to research on agency at work. Agency at work is a crucial component of how individuals engage with work and learning in a way that enables them to develop. Until recently, research on agency at work has had a distinct conceptual stance. These empirical chapters, therefore, provide an important contribution to the literature, by both employing different conceptualisations and examining agency at work in various contexts. In this chapter, we provide some descriptive and reflective accounts of the variety and nature of the empirical work and the methodologies employed based on a framework inspired by conceptual depictions of agency in the literature. Emirbayer and Mische’s (Am J Sociol 103(4):962–1023, 1998) framework that indicates three facets of agency—iterative, practical-evaluative, and projective—has been complemented by characteristics emerging from the analysed studies, indicating the relational versus transformative nature of agency at work. We engage in a discussion on the focus of these studies and operationalisations of agency, the units of analysis, analytical approaches and main findings. We then reflect upon the nature of agency at work and discuss the heterogeneity that is distinctly featured among the studies: Heterogeneity of terms of operationalisations and methodologies employed and also of findings considered defining for agency at work has stood out as an important characteristic of these empirical works. Based on this analysis and reflection, we delineate avenues that may drive the further consolidation of the field. Our reflective account highlights that the studies reviewed have provided an understanding of agency beyond disciplinary boundaries and beyond exclusively individual or collective actions. They reflect the complexity at the empirical level, where agency is expressed in heterogeneous ways and drives actions that trigger further learning processes.

In this chapter, we consider teacher agency as an important concept amongst educators. We investigate individual agency in an educational setting in the form of workplace learning. Specifically, we argue that agentic, proactive feedback-seeking is an important way for teachers to engage in learning. Proactive feedback-seeking is hypothesised to improve both subjective teaching performance and general well-being in terms of flourishing. We present a case study of an international primary school located in Jakarta, Indonesia, that is based on both quantitative and qualitative data. The quantitative analyses revealed that there exists a positive relationship between proactive feedback-seeking and subjective teaching performance. No evidence was found for the hypothesised relationship between proactive feedback-seeking and flourishing in this study. Given these unexpected results, we turned to qualitative data to help better our understanding of the dynamics of proactive feedback-seeking in an educational setting. In the discussion, in which we integrate the results of both streams of research, we point out several contextual elements that most likely inhibited the relationship between proactive feedback-seeking and flourishing whilst providing a list of circumstances and conditions in which the positive relationship between proactive feedback-seeking and subjective teacher performance can be founded on. We then offer implications both for further research and teaching practice.

Informal workplace learning takes an increasingly focal role in human resource development (HRD) practice and research, as it contributes to or ganizations' adaptability and competitiveness. However, little is known about how individual managers' approaches to learning and contextual influences such as leadership and organizational learning culture influence learning outcomes. This study narrows these gaps by examining the relationship between learning approaches, experienced leadership style, organizational learning culture, and learning outcomes among 143 Austrian bank managers in a cross-sectional, quantitative questionnaire study. Results show that the choice of learning approach significantly affects several conceptualizations of learning outcome. Moreover, we have found that learning approaches partially mediate the effects of experienced leadership style on learning outcomes. Also, organizational learning culture moderates the effects of leadership style and learning approaches. These findings call for further research of the process and outcome of informal workplace learning and imply a need for greater awareness of both individuals' learning approaches and contextual influences of the learning process in practice.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of chronological age and formal and informal learning activities on employability. Furthermore, indirect effects of age on employability via learning activities were tested. Design/methodology/approach – The authors conducted quantitative, cross-sectional survey research (n=780) in three Dutch and Austrian organizations to study the relationship between chronological age, formal and informal learning activities, and employability using structural equation modeling. Findings – The authors find that both formal and informal learning increase employees’ employability. However, each type of learning contributes to different components of employability. Additionally, the authors find indirect effects of chronological age on employability via formal learning. Research limitations/implications – The results question the focus on chronological age in organizational and political decision making and contribute new insights for the management of an increasingly older workforce. Practical implications – The findings question the predominant use of chronological age as decisive criterion in organizational and national policies and call for closer examination of stereotypes against older employees. Employees should be supported in pursuing learning activities – irrespective of their chronological age. The implications of limiting employees’ access to formal learning activities may limit their future employability. Individual employees, however, are in control of their informal learning activities, and this is a very important lever to maintain and develop employability. Social implications – Given the increasing dependency of social welfare systems on older people's active participation in the labor market, this study stresses that it is not chronological age per se that affects people's employability. This diverges from the way of how chronological age is used in policy making. Originality/value – This study contributes further evidence for the relationships of age and formal and informal learning on employability. Additionally, it extends previous literature by examining different effects on different facets of employability, criticizing the prevalent use of chronological age, and investigating potential mediation effects.

Employees in countries with advanced industrial economies need to continuously develop their competences to sustain their employability - that is, to have a set of competences that enables them to maintain or find an adequate job. But how should efforts to enhance employability progress in the context of the demographic shift? Previous research suggests that employees’ perspective about their future working life may influence their motivation to engage in learning activities. The study reported and discussed here investigates how employees’ perceptions of the future as a time of opportunities and limitations affects their engagement in learning from others and, in turn, their employability. We tested our model empirically in two Austrian consultancies (n = 167). We find that focus on opportunities in the future explains engagement in learning from others and, subsequently, differences in employability. The informants’ perspectives about the future may be a helpful alternative to the measurement of chronological age, which is problematic from a conceptual point of view.