Search

The resources and platforms available on the internet for collect-ing and sharing information and performing genomic sequence analysis have made it possible to follow closely the evolution the evolution of SARS-CoV-2. However, the current monkeypox outbreak in the world brings us back to the need to use these resources to appraise the extent of this outbreak. The ob-jective of this work was an analysis of the information presented so far in the genomic database GISAID EpiPox™, using various tools available on the web. The results indicate that the monkeypox outbreak is referred as MPXV clade II B.1 lineage and sub-lineages, isolated from male patients mainly from the Euro-pean and American continents. In the current scenario, the access to genomic sequences, epidemiological information, and tools available to the scientific community is of great importance for global public health in order to follow the evolution of pathogens.

By the end of 2021, the Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2, the coronavirus responsible for COVID-19, emerges, causing immediate concern, due to the explosive increase in cases in South Africa and a large number of mutations. This study describes the characteristic mutations of the Omicron variant in the Spike protein, and the behavior of the successive epidemic waves associated to the sub-lineages throughout the world. The mutations in the Spike protein described are related to the virus ability to evade the protec-tion elicited by current vaccines, as well as with possible reduced susceptibil-ity to host proteases for priming of the fusion process, and how this might be related to changes in tropism, a replication enhanced in nasal epithelial cells, and reduced in pulmonary tissue; traits probably associated with the apparent reduced severity of Omicron compared to other variants.

La infección generada por el SARS-CoV-2 ha causado más de 200 millones de casos y de 4,5 millones de muertes en todo el mundo. El SARS-CoV-2 ha ido acumulando mutaciones que permiten clasificarlo en diferentes linajes. Algunos de esos linajes han sido denominados variantes por la OMS: bajo vigilancia (VUM), de interés (VOI) o de preocupación (VOC). Metodología. Se han descrito diferentes estrategias para la vigilancia genómica de estas variantes del SARS-CoV-2 en cada país. En Venezuela las estrategias incluyen la amplificación de un fragmento de la espiga, PCR-RFLP y secuenciación del genoma completo viral, lo que nos ha permitido monitorear la introducción de VOCs y VOIs al país. Resultados. Para octubre de 2021, en Venezuela se han descrito la circulación de tres VOCs, Alpha, Gamma y Delta, y las dos VOIs (Lambda y Mu). Globalmente, la variante Delta predomina en prácticamente en todos los continentes salvo algunos países de Latinoamérica, aunque se estima que pronto prevalecerá también en la región. Discusión. La circulación de variantes en los países es un proceso muy dinámico y Venezuela no escapa de esta realidad; por ello es importante seguir la vigilancia genómica de este virus.

Variants of Concern of SARS-CoV-2 (VOCs), the new coronavirus responsible for COVID-19, have emerged in several countries. Mutations in the amino acid 484 of the Spike protein are particularly important and associated with some of these variants: E484K or E484Q. These mutations have been associated with evasion to neutralizing antibodies. Restriction enzyme analysis is proposed as a rapid method to detect these mutations. A search on GISAID was performed in April 2021 to detect the frequency of these two mutations in the sequence available and their association with other lineages. E484K, present in some VOCs, has emerged in several other lineages and is frequently found in recent viral isolates. A small amplicon from the Spike gene was digested with two enzymes: HpyAV, and MseI. The use of these two enzymes allows the detection of mutations at position 484, and to differentiate between these three conditions: non-mutated, and the presence of E484K or E484Q. A 100% correlation was observed with sequencing results. The proposed methodology, which allows for the screening of a great number of samples, will probably help to provide more information on the prevalence and epidemiology of these mutations worldwide, to select the candidates for whole-genome sequencing.

Introduction: Variants of Concern of SARS-CoV-2 (VOCs), the new coronavirus responsible for COVID-19, have emerged in several countries. Two mutations in the gene coding for the Spike protein of the viral genome are particularly important and associated with some of these variants: E484K and N501Y. Restriction enzyme analysis is proposed as a rapid method to detect these two mutations. Methodology: A search on GISAID was performed in April 2021 to detect the frequency of these two mutations in the sequence available and their association with other lineages. A small amplicon from the Spike gene was digested with two enzymes: HpyAV, which allows detecting E484K mutation, and MseI, for detecting the N501Y one. Results: The mutations E484K and N501Y, associated with VOCs, have emerged in several other lineages, particularly E484K. A 100% correlation was observed with sequencing results. Conclusions: The proposed methodology, which allows screening a great number of samples, will probably help to provide more information on the prevalence and epidemiology of these mutations worldwide, to select the candidates for whole-genome sequencing.

SARS-CoV-2 is the new coronavirus responsible for COVID-19 disease. The first two cases of COVID-19 were detected in Venezuela on March 13, 2020. The aim of this study was the genetic characterization of Venezuelan SARS-CoV-2 isolates. A total of 7 full SARS-CoV-2 genome sequences were obtained by Sanger sequencing, from patients of different regions of Venezuela, mainly from the beginning of the epidemic. Ten out of 11 isolates (6 complete genomes and 4 partial spike genomic regions) belonged to lineage B, bearing the D614G mutation in the Spike protein. Isolates from the first outbreak that occurred in the Margarita Island harbored an in-frame deletion in its sequence, without amino acids 83–85 of the NSP1 of the ORF1. The search for deletions in 48,635 sequences showed that the NSP1 gene exhibit the highest frequency of deletions along the whole genome. Structural analysis suggests a change in the N-terminal domain with the presence of this deletion. In contrast, isolates circulating later in this island lacked the deletion, suggesting new introductions to the island after this first outbreak. In conclusion, a high diversity of SARS-CoV-2 isolates were found circulating in Venezuela, with predominance of the D614G mutation. The first small outbreak in Margarita Island seemed to be associated with a strain carrying a small deletion in the NSP1 protein, but these isolates do not seem to be responsible for the larger outbreak which started in July.

Introduction: Co-infection with GB virus C (GBV-C) in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) has been associated with prolonged survival. The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of GBV-C infection among HIV-1-infected patients in Venezuela, and to determine the effects of the co-infection on the levels of relevant cytokines. Methodology: Plasma samples were collected from 270 HIV-1-seronegative and 255 HIV-1-seropositive individuals. GBV-C infection was determined by RT-PCR of the NS5 region and genotyped by sequence analysis of the 5´UTR region. HIV-1 strains were characterized by sequence analysis of pol , vif , env , and nef genes. Selected cytokines were evaluated by ELISA. Results: Ninety-seven of 525 (18.5%) plasma samples tested positive for GBV-C RNA. A significantly higher prevalence of GBV-C was found among HIV-1 patients compared to HIV-1-seronegative individuals (67/255, 26% versus 30/270, 11%; p < 0.001). Statistical difference was observed in the viral load between HIV-1+GBV-C+ and HIV-1+GBV-C- (p = 0.014), although no differences in CD4 + cell counts were found between both groups. TNFα concentration was higher in HIV-1 + GBV-C - than in HIV-1 + GBV-C + patients (25.9 pg/mL versus 17.3 pg/mL; p = 0.02); RANTES expression levels were more variable in GBV-C co-infected patients and more frequently elevated in HIV-1 mono-infected patients compared to patients co-infected with GBV-C. Conclusions: The previously observed beneficial effect of co-infection with HIV-1 and GBV-C on disease progression is complex and might be due in part to a change in the cytokine environment. More studies are required to understand the interaction between both viruses.

Objectives: We previously reported HIV-1 infection in Warao Amerindians from Venezuela. The aim of this study was to evaluate the extent and the dynamic of HIV-1 dissemination in eight Warao communities. Design and Setting: HIV-1 infection was evaluated in 576 Warao Amerindians from the Orinoco Delta. Partial HIV-1 pol sequences were analyzed to reconstruct the spatiotemporal and demographic dynamics of the epidemic. Results: HIV-1 antibodies were present in 9.55% of Warao Amerindians, ranging from 0 to 22%. A significantly higher prevalence was found in men (15.6%) compared with women (2.6%), reaching up to 35% in men from one community. All but one isolates were classified as subtype B. Warao’s HIV-1 subtype-B epidemic resulted from a single viral introduction at around the early 2000s. After an initial phase of slow growth, the subtype B started to spread at a fast rate (0.8/year) following two major routes of migration within the communities. Conclusion: A dramatic high prevalence was documented in almost all the communities of Warao Amerindians from the Orinoco Delta tested for HIV-1 infection. This epidemic resulted from the dissemination of a single HIV-1 subtype B founder strain introduced about 10 years ago and its size is probably doubling every year, creating a situation that can be devastating for this vulnerable Amerindian group.

The preexistence of mutations to integrase inhibitors in HIV-1-infected Venezuelan patients was evaluated. The integrase region of the HIV-1 genome was amplified by nested-PCR and sequenced in 57 isolates from both naive (n = 24) and treated patients who received protease and/or reverse transcriptase inhibitors (PI and RTI, n = 33), but were never exposed to integrase inhibitors. Only one primary integrase resistance mutation, not conferring drug resistance by itself, was found among these patients, although several minor viral mutations, equally distributed among naive and PI- and RTI-treated patients, were also found. In the limited number of samples, no relation was found among the presence of resistance mutations to PI or RTI and the presence of minor mutations to integrase. The absence of resistance to integrase inhibitors may be related to the recent introduction of these drugs in our country. The availability of in-house assays allows for a more comprehensive surveillance of drug resistance to integrase inhibitors in Venezuela.

An in-house, low-cost method was developed to determine the genotypic resistance of immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) isolates. All 179 Venezuelan isolates analysed belonged to subtype B. Primary drug resistance mutations were found in 11% of 63 treatment-naïve patients. The prevalence of resistance in isolates from 116 HIV-positive patients under antiretroviral treatment was 47% to protease inhibitors, 65% to nucleoside inhibitors and 38% to non-nucleoside inhibitors, respectively. Around 50% of patients in the study harboured viruses with highly reduced susceptibility to the three classical types of drugs after only five years from their initial diagnoses.

The aim of this study was the analysis of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) diversity in Venezuela, and the characterization of variants other than subtype B. A total of 425 HIV isolates, collected between 2003 and 2008, were analyzed. The sequence of at least one genomic region (Pol, Env, Vif, or Nef ) was available for all of them and at least two genomic regions were analyzed in 46% of them. From the 425 HIV isolates analyzed, 421 (99.1%) were classified as HIV-1 subtype B. The four non-subtype B isolates correspond to one subtype C, one recombinant AG, and two HIV-2 isolates. This study shows that HIV-1 subtype B is still highly predominant in Venezuela. Whereas some sporadic cases of other HIV types can be found, they do not seem to have disseminated to the present.

We previously reported a high prevalence of HIV-1 infection in Warao Amerindians from Venezuela due to the rapid spread of a single B subtype strain. In this study we evaluated the coreceptor use of the HIV-1 strains infecting this Amerindian community. Sequences of the HIV-1 V3 loop from 56 plasma samples were genotyped for coreceptor use. An extremely high frequency of CXCR4 strains was found among HIV-1-infecting Waraos (47/49, 96%), compared to HIV-1 strains infecting the non-Amerindian Venezuelan population (35/79, 44%, p 0.00001). Evolutionary analysis showed that a significant number of infections occurred between 1 and 12 months before collection and that a great proportion (50-70%) of HIV-1 transmissions occurred within the very early phase of infection (≤12 months). This is consistent with an initial infection dominated by an X4 strain or a very rapid selection of X4 variants after infection. This Amerindian population also exhibits the highest prevalence of tuberculosis in Venezuela, being synergistically bad prognostic factors for the evolution of morbidity and mortality in this vulnerable population.

Several species of alphaviruses have been previously described in the Americas, some of which are associated with encephalitis and others are associated with arthralgia. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) and eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) are endemic to Venezuela, with the former being responsible for major outbreaks of severe and often fatal disease in animals and humans. The aim of this study was to analyze the genetic diversity of Venezuelan alphaviruses isolated during two decades (1973–1999) of surveillance in northern Venezuela. Phylogenetic analysis indicated the circulation of a VEEV subtype IAB strain 8 years after the last reported outbreak. Thirteen strains within two subclades of South American lineage III of EEEV were also found in Venezuela. Considerable genetic variability was observed among Venezuelan Una virus strains, which were widely distributed among the clades. The first Venezuelan Mayaro sequence was also characterized.

The bovine immunodeficiency virus (BIV)/New Zealand (Oryctolagus cuniculus) rabbit model was used to study events that underlie the early and chronic stages of viral replication, routes and time course of viral dissemination and the distribution of the virus in the lymphoid, nonlymphoid and mucosa associated tissues. The results indicated that BIV, a lentivirus with genetic relatedness to the HIV, induced changes of clinical (anorexia, weight loss, muscular wasting, diarrhea, hypoalgesia, torticollis), immunological (recurrent T- and B-cell dysfunctions) and histopathological (lymphadenopathy, splenomegaly) nature that closely parallels those described for cat (FIV), monkey (SIV) and human (HIV) lentiviral diseases. These findings showing that BIV induces both splenomegaly and lymphadenopathy syndromes with associated fatal immune dysfunctions and the ability of the virus to replicate productively at the mucosal surfaces in rabbits, emphasize the importance of the BIV/rabbit system as a good small-animal model for the study of retrovirus-induced AIDS and offers the opportunity to evaluate prophylactic and therapeutic anti-retroviral agents of relevance to HIV-1 as well as the opportunity to study mechanisms of drug resistance phenomena.

Serial virus specimens rescued from rabbits, experimentally infected with bovine immunodeficiency (BIV) strain R29, were monitored for changes in quasispecies population, using the single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) analysis. The generation of characteristic SSCP patterns enables the rapid differentiation of BIV variants derived from the conserved part on the env region of the BIV genome, reducing the need for expensive and time-consuming direct sequencing analyses. Our results showed genetic polymorphism among a number of sampled BIV population in experimentally infected rabbits. At least three SSCP patterns (BIV quasispecies) were detected. The SSCP analysis allows for an easy, sensitive, and rapid screening of genetic variants of the virus and the assessment of variation at a number of tissue target sites. These variations may relate to cell-type targets and/or disease progression, and could be significant to our understanding of lentiviral pathogenesis.

To assess the value of bovine immunodeficiency virus (BIV) infection as a model for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in man, we studied the impairment of certain immunologic functions in New Zealand white rabbits experimentally infected with an uncloned virulent isolate of the virus, BIV R29. Serum samples were tested by Western blot for the presence and persistence of antibody production. The T- and B-lymphocyte function was studied by evaluation of the blastogenic responsiveness to concanavalin A (Con A) and to dextran sulfate (DxS). All infected rabbits seroconverted to BIV antigens within 2 to 4 weeks postinfection (p.i.) The BIV was isolated from the peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs) of 13 of 17 rabbits (77%) early in the infection and also from 5 of 17 hyperplastic mesenteric lymph nodes (29%) and 10 of 17 spleens (59%) during the chronic stage of infection. Seven of 17 BIV-infected rabbits (41%) developed marked immunodepression 2 to 5 months p.i., and later, 5 exhibited a rapidly progressive disease with anorexia, weight loss, neurologic impairment, splenomegaly, and mesenteric lymphadenopathy. These data underline the value of the BIV model for studying HIV pathogenesis in vivo and the development of interventional strategies for AIDS.

Studies were performed to establish whether synthetic ajoene exhibited differential inhibitory activity against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 (IIIB) and to clarify the mechanism of its antiviral effects. Our results demonstrate that ajoene protected acutely infected Molt-4 cells against HIV-1 and blocked further destruction of CD4 T-cells in vitro. Ajoene showed dose-dependent inhibition, with 50% cytotoxic concentration (CTC50%) and 50% effective inhibitory concentration (EIC50%) values of 1.88 microM and about 0.35 microM, respectively, when the test compound was added before or after HIV-1 infection and incubation carried out at 37 degrees C for 4 days. Ajoene proved relatively more active than dextran sulfate in blocking HIV-1 virus-cell attachment. The mode of anti-HIV action of ajoene can be ascribed to the inhibition of early events of viral replication, particularly virus adsorption.

Background Occult hepatitis B infection (OBI) is characterized by the presence of hepatitis B virus (HBV) DNA in the absence of HBsAg in the serum of patients. The aim of this study was to characterize HBV infection among a Piaroa community, an Amerindian group which exhibits significant evidence of exposure to HBV but relatively low presence of HBsAg, and to explore the presence of OBI in this population. Results Of 150 sera, with 17% anti-HBc and 1.3% HBsAg prevalence, 70 were tested for the presence of HBV DNA. From these, 25 (36%) were found positive for HBV DNA by PCR in the core region. Two of these 25 sera were HBsAg positive, indicating an overt infection. Of the remaining 68 sera tested, 23 exhibited OBI. Of these, 13 were HBV DNA out of 25 anti-HBc positive (52%) and 10 HBV DNA positive, out of 43 anti-HBc negative (23%), with a statistical significance of p = 0.03. Viral DNA and HBsAg were present intermittently in follow up sera of 13 individuals. Sequence analysis in the core region of the amplified DNA products showed that all the strains belonged to HBV genotype F3. The OBI isolates displayed 96-100% nucleotide identity between them. One isolate exhibited the co-circulation of a wild type variant with a variant with a premature stop codon at the core protein, and a variant exhibiting a deletion of 28 amino acids. Conclusions The frequency of OBI found in this Amerindian group warrants further studies in other communities exhibiting different degrees of HBV exposure.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the presence of mutations and polymorphisms associated with drug resistance among HIV-1-infected patients in proviral DNA and viral RNA extracted from PBMCs and plasma, respectively, in 34 HIV-1-infected patients (11 naive and 23 receiving HAART). Additional drug resistance mutations were found in only one compartment in 14 of 23 treated patients. Mutations conferring resistance to an additional drug were found in plasma in only 7 of 23 patients. A greater number of differences was found in strains in patients infected for at least more than 9 years, compared to naive patients and patients for whom the time since the first diagnosis was lower (p

Background: Variable progression towards AIDS has been described and has been related to viral and host factors. Around 10% of the HIV-1 infected patients are slow progressors (SP), not presenting with AIDS disease signs even after more than 10 years of infection. Viral gene defects have been associated with the disease progression but more studies are still needed. Methodology: The sequence of vif and nef were analyzed for HIV-1 infecting 14 SP and 46 normal progressors (NP) patients. Results: Co-circulation of a strain carrying vif deleted gene with the wild type strain was detected in an SP patient with more than 10 years of infection. Other mutations (insertion in aa 63 in one strain, two premature stop codons in another one) were found in viruses infecting two other patients. Except for the SP8 strain, which exhibited a premature stop codon in nef, no gross deletions or insertions were observed in nef genes of both NPs and SPs strains analyzed. Conclusions: Different kind of mutation: deletion, insertion and stop codon, were detected in 3/14 samples from SP, with co-circulation of a 195 bp vif deletion virus with a wild type in one of these patients. Although vif defects do not seem to be a frequent feature in SPs, this study illustrates the importance of analysing this gene, in addition to the multiple factors associated with the long-term non progression to AIDS.

We have carried out the study of the photochemical properties of a series of synthetic meso-tetraphenylsulfonated porphyrins (TPPMS4) bonded to several metal ions such as: Cu(II), Zn(II), Pd(II), Mn(II), Fe(III), Ni(II) and Co(II) for the optimization of their clinical applications as antiviral agents against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) as well as the study of the in vitro antiviral photoinactivation mechanisms with future application in blood sterilization. A selective inhibition has been determined in the viral growth (HIV-1) when this is irradiated in the presence of the complex TPPFeS4 and TPPMnS4 (photosensitizer-mediated Type I reaction) as well as in the 1O2-mediated (Type II reaction) in the presence of TPPPdS4 and TPPZnS4, remaining cellular viability unaltered in each case.

The levels of complement C3 and C4 components were determined in non-indigenous (creoles) and indigenous (Warao) populations, the latter with an extremely high tuberculosis (TB) rate. Serum samples from 209 adults were studied and classified in 4 groups taking into account tuberculin skin tests (TST): (1) the group of Warao patients (58 positive for the TST, WP TST+ and 9 negative for the TST, WP TST-), (2) the group of creole patients (34 positive for the TST, CP TST+ and 9 negative for the TST, CP TST-), (3) the group of healthy Warao controls (38 positive and 14 negative for TST, WC TST+ and WC TST-, respectively), (4) the creole controls (26 positive and 21 negative for the TST, CC TST+ and CC TST-, respectively). With respect to the results concerning the measurement of both complement C3 and C4 components with the exception of the WC TST and the CC groups, the WP TST+ and WP TST- as well as WC TST+ groups showed a significant frequency of individuals with decreased levels of complement C3 component (20.6, 33.3, and 26.3%, respectively) and also C4 component (12.0, 11.1, and 13.3%, respectively) in comparison to both creole patients (CP TST+, 8.82% and CP TST-, 0% and CP TST+, 5.88% and CP TST-, 0%) for C3 and C4, respectively. The study of these parameters carried out in 15 Warao subjects with active infection, before and after anti-TB chemotherapy,statisticallyconfirmedthat the effective chemotherapy did not restore normal levels of the complement C3 and C4 components among Warao patients. Aditional tests for hepatitis B or hepatitis C infection, and the profile of the hepatic proteins were not associated to the deficiency in production of the complement components. In conclusion, the results show that within the Warao population, a high percentage of subjects exhibit decreased levels of both complement C3 and C4 components independent of latent or active infection and the status of TST.

Extracts of dried flowers from Calendula officinalis were examined for their ability to inhibit the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) replication. Both organic and aqueous extracts were relatively nontoxic to human lymphocytic Molt-4 cells, but only the organic one exhibited potent anti-HIV activity in an in vitro MTT/tetrazolium-based assay. In addition, in the presence of the organic extract (500 micrograms/mL), the uninfected Molt-4 cells were completely protected for up to 24 h from fusion and subsequent death, caused by cocultivation with persistently infected U-937/HIV-1 cells. It was also found that the organic extract from Calendula officinalis flowers caused a significant dose- and time-dependent reduction of HIV-1 reverse transcription (RT) activity. An 85% RT inhibition was achieved after a 30 min treatment of partially purified enzyme in a cell-free system. These results suggested that organic extract of flowers from Calendula officinalis possesses anti-HIV properties of therapeutic interest.

Bovine paraplegic syndrome (BPS) is a debilitating cattle disease of unknown origin that is characterized by leukocytosis, lymphocytopenia and monocytopenia. The major clinical signs are difficulties in locomotion affecting hind limbs, hypoalgesia in the hind quarters, posterior paralysis and death within 72 to 96 hours after recumbency. To investigate the aetiological basis of BPS, we examined a possible association of the syndrome with infection by bovine immunodeficiency virus (BIV), a lentivirus implicated in immune system dysfunction and central nervous system lesions in cattle. Serum samples (n = 1,278) were collected from both healthy and BPS-prevalent cattle herds in Venezuela, and organ extracts were prepared from euthanized animals (n = 11) suspected of having BPS. Sera were analysed for reactivity to recombinant BIV and bovine leukaemia virus gag precursor proteins by immunoblot procedures. Serum reactivity to BIV ranged from 12 to 66% between groups of BPS prevalent herds. The percentage of samples reactive to BLV antigen was much lower (2 to 17%). Rabbits inoculated with extracts from BPS-afflicted animals exhibited an anamnestic immune response to BIV antigens as well as the presence of BIV gag antigens in their tissues. We present evidence for a possible association between BPS disease and a viral agent related to BIV. The role of BIV, in combination with malnutrition, in BPS is discussed.

To investigate the effect of bovine immunodeficiency virus (BIV) infection on the rabbit immune system, we studied the proliferative responses of peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs) of rabbits experimentally inoculated with BIV. All BIV127-inoculated rabbits seroconverted after 6 weeks and remained seropositive over a prolonged period of time. Assays for specific lymphocyte reactivity to concanavalin A (Con A) were performed monthly for over 1 year. One-hundred percent of infected rabbits developed abnormally low T cell responses, as measured by Con A stimulation. By 3 months postinoculation, the PBL response to Con A was diminished and remained depressed for 6 months. All animals were clinically asymptomatic within 14 months of BIV inoculation. By 15 and 16 months postinoculation, two of three infected rabbits exhibited recurrent lowering of the T cell responsiveness including a decrease in absolute PBL counts. One of these animals died unexpectedly. Our results further confirmed that a functional impairment of lymphocytes was induced early in the course of BIV infection, prior to clinical disease. These findings suggested that BIV infection may mimic asymptomatic infection of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and provided further evidence of the importance of BIV-induced disease in rabbits as a relevant model for the study of AIDS.

Alrededor de 3 millones de personas están infectadas con el virus de inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH) en las Américas y unas 110000 en Venezuela, donde la distribución de subtipos es bastante homogénea, representada principalmente por el subtipo B y una escasa representación de subtipos no B y/o formas recombinantes. El predominio del subtipo B en las Américas quizá se deba al efecto fundador de esta variante viral en los años 1960-1970, siendo Haití uno de los países donde pudo haberse iniciado la epidemia para luego diseminarse hacia otros países. El incremento en la frecuencia de subtipos no B en las Américas ha sido asociado a varios comportamientos de riesgo: el uso de drogas endovenosas, el comercio sexual y movilizaciones sanitarias o militares. En países como Cuba, Brasil y en países del Cono Sur la presencia de subtipos no B y de formas recombinantes es mayor que en el resto de la región. Esta situación pudiera ser el espejo de lo que encontremos en todo el continente americano en décadas futuras. Around 3 million people are thought to be infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in the Americas, and around 110000 in Venezuela, where HIV subtype distribution is quite homogenous, with mainly subtype B and few cases of non B subtypes or recombinant forms. The high frequency of subtype B in the Americas is probably due to a founder effect of this viral variant around 1960-1970. The epidemic might have started in Haiti and then was disseminated to other countries. The increase in frequency of non B subtypes in the Americas has been associated to several risk factors: intravenous drug abuse, commercial sex and sanitary and military movilizations. In countries like Cuba, Brasil and countries from the Southern Cone, the presence of non B subtype and recombinant forms is more frequent than in the rest of the region. This situation might mirror what we will find in all the Americas in the next decades. É estimado em mais de 3 milhões de pessoas infectadas com o vírus da imunodeficiência humana tipo 1 (HIV-1) nas Américas e cerca de 110000 na Venezuela, onde a distribuição dos subtipos é bastante homogênea, representada principalmente pelo subtipo B e uma baixa representação de subtipos não-B e / ou formas recombinates. O predomínio do subtipo B nas Américas pode ser devido ao efeito fundador desta variante viral nos anos 1960-1970, sendo o Haiti um dos países onde a epidemia pode ter começado, disseminando-se para outros países. O aumento na freqüência de subtipos não-B nas Américas tem sido associada a vários comportamentos de risco: uso de drogas endovenosas, comércio sexual e sanitário e mobilizações militares. Em países como Cuba, Brasil e países do Cone Sul, a presença de subtipos não B e formas recombinates é maior do que nas demais regiões. Esta situação poderá ser o espelho do que encontraremos em todo o continente americano nas futuras décadas.

Se estudiaron pacientes seropositivos para el virus de inmunodeficiencia humana tipo 1 (VIH-1) con y sin tratamiento, con el fin de determinar el polimorfismo y la prevalencia de mutaciones de resistencia a la terapia antirretroviral. El material genético viral fue extraído a partir de células mononucleares de sangre periféricas (ADN) y del plasma (ARN) de 30 pacientes. Se amplificaron 2 regiones del gen Pol, Transcriptasa Reversa (TR) y Proteasa (Pr) y el gen de envoltura (Env) por medio de la técnica de PCR y se obtuvo la secuencia genómica de los productos. Todos los aislados analizados pertenecieron al subtipo B. No se observaron mutaciones primarias asociadas a resistencia a inhibidores de Pr pero sí un alto porcentaje (86%, 19/22) de mutaciones no asociadas con resistencia sino a restitución de la capacidad replicativa de cepas mutantes (mutaciones secundarias). Se observó la presencia de mutaciones asociadas a resistencia a inhibidores nucleósidos de la TR (INTR) en 35% (6/17) de los pacientes sometidos a tratamiento, mientras que 12% (2/17) de ellos presentaron mutaciones de resistencia a inhibidores no nucleósidos de la TR (INNTR). Interesantemente, un paciente no tratado estaba infectado con una cepa que presentaba mutaciones primarias (7,7%); este resultado sugiere que podría ser importante plantearse el estudio local de determinación de resistencia genotípica en pacientes antes del tratamiento, con miras a minimizar fallas terapéuticas. Se requieren estudios adicionales para evaluar el rol de las mutaciones secundarias en el éxito de la infección viral. The genetic variability was studied in HIV-1 from Venezuelan patients with and without treatment, in order to evaluate the presence of polymorphisms and drug resistance mutations. Proviral DNA from peripheral blood mononuclear cells or viral RNA from plasma was extracted from the blood of 30 patients. Two regions from the polymerase gene, protease (Pr) and reverse transcriptase (RT) and one genomic fragment from the envelope (Env) gene were amplified and sequenced. All HIV-1 samples analyzed were classified as subtype B, without evidence of recombination. Although no primary protease mutations were detected, a high frequency of secondary mutations (86%, 19/22), associated to restoration of viral replicative fitness, was observed in strains circulating both in treated and non-treated patients. Resistance mutations to nucleoside RT inhibitors (NRTI) and non-nucleoside RT inhibitors (NNRTI) were detected in 35% (6/17) and 12% (2/17) of the viruses circulating in treated patients, respectively. Resistance mutations were also present in the virus infecting one antiretroviral naïve individual (7.7%), suggesting that local screening for resistant mutation in naïve patient might be important to minimize therapy failure. Future studies are warranted to assess the role of secondary mutation in the success of viral infection.