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Background: Studies of physical activity and incidence of physician-diagnosed depression have been limited to a single estimate of self-reported physical activity exposure, despite follow-up periods lasting many years.Purpose: To examine longitudinal change in cardiorespiratory fitness, an objective marker of habitual physical activity, and incident depression complaints made to a physician.Methods: Cardiorespiratory fitness assessed at four clinic visits between 1971 and 2006, each separated by an average of 2-3 years, was used to objectively measure cumulative physical activity exposure in cohorts of 7936 men and 1261 women, aged 20-85 years, from the Aerobics Center Longitudinal Study who did not complain of depression at their first clinic visit in 1971-2003. Data were analyzed in August 2010.Results: Across subsequent visits, there were 446 incident cases in men and 153 cases in women. After adjustment for age, time between visits, BMI at each visit, and fitness at Visit 1, each 1-minute decline in treadmill endurance (i.e., a decline in cardiorespiratory fitness of approximately 1 half-MET) between ages 51 and 55 years in men and ages 53 and 56 years in women, increased the odds of incident depression complaints by approximately 2% and 9.5%, respectively. The increased odds remained significant but were attenuated to 1.3% and 5.4% after further adjustment at each visit for smoking, alcohol use, chronic medical conditions, anxiety, and sleep problems.Conclusions: Maintenance of cardiorespiratory fitness during late middle age, when decline in fitness typically accelerates, helps protect against the onset of depression complaints made to a physician. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVES: To test an original scale assessing perceived school climate for girls' physical activity in middle school girls. METHODS: Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM). RESULTS: CFA retained 5 of 14 original items. A model with 2 correlated factors, perceptions about teachers' and boys' behaviors, respectively, fit the data well in both sixth and eighth graders. SEM detected a positive, significant direct association of the teacher factor, but not the boy factor, with girls' self-reported physical activity. CONCLUSIONS: School climate for girls' physical activity is a measurable construct, and preliminary evidence suggests a relationship with physical activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

PURPOSE: The study evaluated whether targeted changes in factors influencing enjoyment of physical education (PE), physical activity enjoyment, and self-efficacy beliefs about participating in physical activity mediated the effect of the Lifestyle Education for Activity Program (LEAP) intervention on participation in physical activity. METHODS: High schools (N=24) paired on enrollment size, racial composition, urban or rural location, and class structure were randomized into control (N=12) or experimental (N=12) groups. Of the 4044 girls enrolled and eligible, 2087 (51.6%) participated in the measurement component of the study. There were 1038 girls in the control group and 1049 girls in the experimental group. INTERVENTION: LEAP was a comprehensive school-based intervention emphasizing changes in instruction and school environment designed to increase physical activity among black and white adolescent girls. It was organized according to the Coordinated School Health Program and included a PE component with core objectives of promoting enjoyment of PE, physical activity enjoyment, and self-efficacy. RESULTS: Latent variable structural equation modeling indicated that: 1) the intervention had direct, positive effects on physical activity and factors influencing enjoyment of PE, which subsequently explained the effects of increased physical activity enjoyment and self-efficacy on increased physical activity; and 2) an additional, indirect effect of physical activity enjoyment on physical activity operated by an influence on self-efficacy. CONCLUSIONS: Increases in enjoyment partially mediated the positive effect of the LEAP intervention. To our knowledge, we have provided the first experimental evidence from a randomized controlled trial linking increased enjoyment with increased physical activity among black and white adolescent girls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate social support and theory of planned behavior (TPB) constructs in explaining physical activity in adolescent girls. METHODS: One thousand seven hundred ninety-seven 8th-grade girls completed a survey measuring social provisions, family support, TPB constructs, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), and team sport involvement (TSI). RESULTS: Structural equation modeling (SEM) indicated statistically significant direct effects from TPB constructs and social provisions to intention; social provisions, family support, and intention to MVPA; and social provisions and family support to TSI. CONCLUSIONS: Social variables play a greater role in explaining TSI than in explaining MVPA in this sample. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Effective physical activity (PA) interventions are needed to counter the insufficient and declining levels of PA in youth. These require an updated, comprehensive planning framework that consolidates recent decades of progress in promoting PA in young children, children, and adolescents. Effective PA interventions require program planning and conceptual model development that target a coordinated and multilevel set of age-specific PA determinants. Accordingly, this paper presents a comprehensive planning framework that researchers can use to design intervention research to promote PA in youth., Methods: The first author conducted targeted searches through Google Scholar to compile PA models/frameworks/guides applicable to youth, a comprehensive set of PA determinants, and determinant-linked strategies to promote PA focusing on review articles. The information was summarized in tables, synthesized, and used to create a planning framework, all of which were reviewed by coauthors., Results: The APPLE Framework for Planning PA Opportunities for Youth (APPLE = Age, PA focus, Place and time, Leverage relevant influences and strategies, and ensure Enjoyable PA opportunities) incorporated all core elements from targeted reviews to create a comprehensive planning framework. The APPLE Planning Framework has a set of questions/prompts that guide the intervention planning process and conceptual model templates to organize planning efforts for designing intervention research., Conclusions: The APPLE Framework for Planning PA Opportunities for Youth will enable researchers to develop comprehensive conceptual models to guide the design of PA interventions for youth. Future research should refine the model and its components to enable PA intervention research in youth to move forward.

Introduction: Effective public health interventions targeting factors that influence physical activity are urgently needed to reduce the age-related decline in physical activity in youth. The purpose of this study was to identify associations between physical activity and a set of potential influences on physical activity in children as they transition from elementary to high school., Methods: Participants were 951 children from South Carolina school districts who completed outcome and independent variable measures on at least two time points from the 5th to 11th grades in 2010-2017. The primary outcome variable was physical activity, measured by accelerometry. Independent variables included a comprehensive set of variables in the child, parent/home, school, and community domains. Children, parents and school administrators, and staff completed questionnaires to assess psychosocial and home, school, and neighborhood environmental influences. Growth curve analyses identified independent variables associated with physical activity over time, either as a main effect or as an interaction with age., Results: As main effects, self-efficacy, self-schema, sport participation, weekday outdoor hours, importance of child participating in sports and physical activity, safe to play outside, and Physical Activity Resource Assessment weighted score were positively associated with physical activity. The associations between physical activity and enjoyment motivation, appearance motivation, weekend outdoor time, and home equipment exhibited significant interactions with age. Enjoyment motivation influenced physical activity during the earlier years, whereas the remaining three variables influenced physical activity in the later years., Conclusions: Interventions should target multiple domains of influences that may vary by age., (Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. on behalf of the American College of Sports Medicine.)

Background/objectives: Childhood obesity rates have increased in recent years. The effectiveness of future public health interventions to reduce childhood obesity will be enhanced by a better understanding of behavioral factors that influence adiposity in children as they transition from childhood to adolescence. The purpose of this study was to examine whether initial weight status modifies the longitudinal associations of physical activity, sedentary behavior, and diet quality with changes in adiposity over time., Subjects/methods: A total of 658 children (45% boys) were stratified into 3 groups based on 5th grade BMI percentiles ( < 85th, 85-95th, > 95th) and followed from 5th grade to 6th and/or 7th grade. Study variables, including fat-mass-index (FMI), moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), diet quality, and sedentary behavior, were measured at 5th, 6th, and/or 7th grades. Separate growth curve models were conducted within each weight status group to examine the associations between MVPA, sedentary behavior, diet quality and adiposity, operationalized as FMI. All models controlled for sex, maturity offset, race, and parent education., Results: Of the 658 children, 53% were classified with normal weight at baseline, 18% with overweight, and 29% with obesity. Associations between MVPA, sedentary behavior, diet quality and FMI varied within each weight status group. MVPA was negatively associated with adiposity (FMI) for all weight status groups. Diet quality and sedentary behavior were associated with adiposity only in children with obesity at baseline; neither diet quality nor sedentary behavior was associated with FMI for those with overweight., Conclusions: MVPA was negatively associated with adiposity (FMI) in all weight status groups, suggesting that MVPA may protect against higher adiposity. Sedentary behavior and diet quality were associated with adiposity only in children with obesity at baseline; neither sedentary behavior nor diet quality was associated with FMI for children with overweight., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Limited.)

Schools are well-positioned to provide physical activity opportunities to help youth achieve the recommended 60 or more daily minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. The Children's Physical Activity Research Group (CPARG) at the University of South Carolina has focused on understanding physical activity in school-aged youth for 30+ years. The purpose of this article was to critically review (CPARG) contributions to the field in school settings and school-age youth. We reviewed 127 published CPARG articles from six research projects conducted between 1993-2019. The review was guided by questions in five categories: measurement of physical activity and its determinants, characteristics of physical activity behavior, correlates/determinants of physical activity, physical activity interventions, and race/ethnicity and physical activity. Results were summarized by question and synthesized across categories. CPARG contributions included assessing physical activity levels, patterns, forms, and contexts; identifying and measuring physical activity correlates/determinants; and conducting school-based physical activity interventions. Identifying multiple domains of physical activity determinants enables researchers and practitioners to select/design age-appropriate, valid, and reliable instruments to assess determinants. Focusing on determinants enables them to create effective physical activity interventions, environments, programs, and policies in schools. These efforts must address race/ethnicity differences, ensuring that measurement instruments and intervention strategies are culturally appropriate.

Introduction: This longitudinal study determined if social cognitive variables influence physical activity in girls stratified on the basis of maturity status., Methods: Participants attended South Carolina public schools (Mage in 5th grade = 11.1 years) and included a cohort of 529 girls who provided physical activity data in the 5th grade and in 6th and/or 7th grade. The measure of maturity status was age at peak height velocity (APHV) estimated from maturity offset when the children were in the 5th grade. The Earlier Maturity (EM) group included girls whose APHV was one standard deviation or more below the mean APHV for the full sample. All other girls were placed in the Later Maturity (LM) group. Physical activity was assessed at each time point via accelerometry. Social-cognitive variables were assessed at each time point by a questionnaire measuring self-efficacy, enjoyment, competence, appearance, fitness, and social motives for physical activity. Growth curves for the total, Earlier Maturing, and Later Maturing groups assessed relationships between physical activity over time and time-varying social cognitive variables., Results: Physical activity was lower in the Earlier Maturing group and was positively associated with self-efficacy and enjoyment motivation in the total group. These relationships were observed in the 5th grade and maintained through 7th grade. In the Later Maturing group, we observed positive relationships between physical activity and self-efficacy, enjoyment and competence motivation., Conclusions: Strategies to increase confidence, skills, and enjoyment of physical activity may only be effective for promoting activity among later maturing girls., (© 2022 The Authors. American Journal of Human Biology published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Objective: To explore whether physical activity is inversely associated with the onset of depression, we quantified the cumulative association of customary physical activity with incident depression and with an increase in subclinical depressive symptoms over time as reported from prospective observational studies., Design: Systematic review and meta-analysis., Data Sources: MEDLINE, PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES and CINAHL Complete databases, supplemented by Google Scholar., Eligibility Criteria: Prospective cohort studies in adults, published prior to January 2020, reporting associations between physical activity and depression., Study Appraisal and Synthesis: Multilevel random-effects meta-analysis was performed adjusting for study and cohort or region. Mixed-model meta-regression of putative modifiers., Results: Searches yielded 111 reports including over 3 million adults sampled from 11 nations in five continents. Odds of incident cases of depression or an increase in subclinical depressive symptoms were reduced after exposure to physical activity (OR, 95% CI) in crude (0.69, 0.63 to 0.75; I 2 =93.7) and adjusted (0.79, 0.75 to 0.82; I 2 =87.6) analyses. Results were materially the same for incident depression and subclinical symptoms. Odds were lower after moderate or vigorous physical activity that met public health guidelines than after light physical activity. These odds were also lower when exposure to physical activity increased over time during a study period compared with the odds when physical activity was captured as a single baseline measure of exposure., Conclusion: Customary and increasing levels of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity in observational studies are inversely associated with incident depression and the onset of subclinical depressive symptoms among adults regardless of global region, gender, age or follow-up period., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2021. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Measurement of physical activity is challenging, and objective and subjective methods can be used. The purposes of this study were to apply structural equation modeling in: 1) examining the associations between three distinct measures of physical activity and three factors that are often found to be correlated to physical activity in children, and 2) examining the associations of the combination of three measures with the same correlates in a cohort of youth followed from 5th to 7th grade. A total of 409 children (45% boys) had complete physical activity data derived from accelerometers, self-report by youth, and proxy-report by parents. The potential correlates of physical activity included self-efficacy, physical activity support, and facilities for physical activity. Structural equation models were used to assess the relationship between physical activity and the correlates. The structural equation models examining associations between individual measures of physical activity and selected correlates showed that parent-reported and child self-reported physical activity were associated with parental support for physical activity and self-efficacy. Objectively measured physical activity was associated only with facilities for physical activity. A structural equation model showed that a composite expression of physical activity, based on the inclusion of all three individual measures, was associated with all three correlates of physical activity. In conclusion, combining measures of physical activity from different sources may improve the identification of correlates of physical activity. This information could be used to plan more effective physical activity interventions in children and youth., Competing Interests: The authors report no conflicts of interest., (© 2021 The Authors.)

Background: Interventions promoting physical activity (PA) in youth have had limited success, in part because studies with methodological challenges have yielded an incomplete understanding of personal, social, and environmental influences on PA. This study described changes in these factors for subgroups of youth with initially high PA that decreased (Active-Decline) compared with children with initially low PA that decreased (Inactive-Decline) from fifth to ninth grades., Methods: Observational, prospective cohort design. Participants (n = 625) were fifth-grade children recruited in 2 school districts and followed from elementary to high school. Students and their parents responded to questionnaires to assess personal, social, and perceived physical environmental factors in the fifth (mean age = 10.5 [.5] y) and ninth (mean age = 14.7 [.6] y) grades. Analyses included a mixed-model 2-way repeated analysis of variances., Results: Children in the Active-Decline compared with those in the Inactive-Decline group showed a more favorable profile in 6 of 8 personal variables (perceived barriers, self-efficacy, self-schema, enjoyment, competence, and fitness motives) and 4 of 6 social variables (friend support, parent encouragement, parent support, and parent-reported support)., Conclusions: The results suggest efforts to promote PA should target selected personal, social, and perceived environmental factors beginning before age 10 and continuing through adolescence.

Background: Physical activity (PA) provides important health benefits to children, and a large percentage of children's PA occurs at home. The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between psychosocial, home, and neighborhood environmental factors and children's reported PA at home and in the neighborhood, during the transition from elementary to high school., Methods: A total of 555 participants (44% boys) were recruited in grade 5 and followed through grades 6, 7, and 9. Children self-reported PA in 3 locations-at home, in the neighborhood, and on the street. Children reported parent support and neighborhood environment, parents reported PA equipment, and a windshield survey assessed incivilities and outside PA equipment. Longitudinal Poisson models evaluated the relationships between environmental variables and 3 self-reported PA variables, adjusting for gender, race/ethnicity, and parent education., Results: Parent support and PA equipment were significant positive predictors of home PA. Child's perceived environment (positive) and incivilities (negative) were significant predictors of neighborhood PA. Parental support, perceived environment, and outside PA equipment were positive significant predictors of street PA., Conclusions: This study supports the need for both family and community/neighborhood PA interventions that encourage parents to support child PA and for communities to reduce incivilities.

The benefits of exercise for smokers attempting to quit are partially dependent on physical activity levels prior to cessation. Mood disturbances can manifest within 30 min of smoking a cigarette and contribute to negative reinforcement of smoking behavior over time, whereas a single bout of aerobic exercise can reduce negative mood states and improve affect on a similar timescale in non-smokers. The acute effects of exercise among non-abstaining smokers immediately after a cigarette are unknown but may have clinical implications for smokers considering cessation. The aim of this study was to examine the concurrent effects of exercise on mood disturbance and prefrontal brain hemodynamic response to emotionally arousing scenes 30 min after smoking a cigarette and to test whether prefrontal brain hemodynamic response was correlated with affective ratings of the scenes. Fifteen cigarette smokers, averaging 47.6 cigarettes/week in the year prior to screening, served as participants. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy was used to measure hemodynamic status over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Participants viewed pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral scenes prior to smoking a cigarette and 30 min later after seated rest or exercise at a preferred intensity. Mood disturbance was assessed by the Profile of Mood States-Brief Form four times: before smoking a cigarette, before and after exercise and rest, and after a post-condition (exercise/rest) exposure to emotionally arousing scenes. Compared to seated rest, cycling after a cigarette reduced mood disturbance (p = =.038) and DLPFC hemodynamic response to unpleasant (p = =.003) and pleasant (p = =.021) scenes relative to neutral scenes. DLPFC hemodynamic response was not related to affective ratings of scenes. We report that cycling for 20 min at a preferred intensity reduces mood disturbances which occur shortly after smoking a cigarette and blunts DLPFC hemodynamic response to emotionally arousing scenes. The findings encourage further investigation of exercise for smokers in the maintenance stage of smoking cessation., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: Studies support the Transtheoretical Model's (TTM) ability to describe behavior change processes and guide interventions; however, the temporal sequencing of constructs is less understood. This cohort study tested five sequences to identify TTM construct changes related to physical activity., Methods: A random sample provided baseline data ( n =689; 63% female; M age ( SD )=47(17); 37% white), with 401 participants providing 24-month data, at six-month intervals., Results: Structural equation models revealed processes to cognitions to stage ( AIC =29313.093, BIC =29514.883, CFI =0.999, RMSEA =0.006, SRMR=0.026); processes to stage to cognitions ( AIC =27788.651, BIC =27973.268, CFI =0.978, RMSEA =0.024, SRMR=0.038), self-efficacy/temptations to processes to decisional balance to stage ( AIC =13914.771, BIC =14031.169, CFI =0.981, RMSEA =0.018, SRMR=0.034), and stage to processes to cognitions ( AIC =22048.324, BIC =22212.986, CFI =0.976, RMSEA =0.026, SRMR=0.029) all fit well. However, cognitions to processes to stage did not fit the data well ( AIC =10353.555, BIC =10444.179, CFI =0.937, RMSEA =0.038, SRMR=0.035)., Conclusions: Integrating results revealed a cyclical model so that intervention efforts should focus on processes to change cognitions related to barrier self-efficacy and decisional balance, which then lead to change in stage and then renew focus on the processes., Competing Interests: Declarations of interest: None

Context: Anxiety symptoms and disorders are highly prevalent and costly. Prospective studies suggest that physical activity may prevent anxiety development; however, this body of literature has not been reviewed comprehensively., Evidence Acquisition: Studies measuring physical activity at baseline and anxiety at a designated follow-up at least 1 year later were located using MEDLINE, PsycINFO, and CINAHL Complete through June 2018., Evidence Synthesis: Data were analyzed July-December 2018. Study quality was assessed using Q-Coh. Among studies of adults, a random-effects meta-analysis was conducted for crude and the most fully adjusted models for three outcomes: self-reported anxiety symptoms, a diagnosis of any anxiety disorder, and a diagnosis of generalized anxiety disorder. As there were few studies with diverse samples and outcome measures, findings were elaborated with a critical narrative review of all studies. Twenty-four studies (median follow-up, 4.75 years) of >80,000 unique individuals were included in the systematic review; thirteen were included in the meta-analyses. Six studies were assessed as low quality, nine as acceptable, and nine as good. From adjusted models, odds of elevated anxiety symptoms (OR=0.8742, 95% CI=0.7731, 0.9886, n=9), any anxiety disorder (OR=0.6626, 95% CI=0.5337, 0.8227, n=3), and generalized anxiety disorder specifically (OR=0.5438, 95% CI=0.3231, 0.9153, n=3) were significantly lower after physical activity exposure., Conclusions: Available evidence suggests that engaging in physical activity protects against anxiety symptoms and disorders. However, notable challenges in the current evidence base include issues regarding exposure and outcome measures, consistent adjustment for putative confounders, representativeness of samples, and attrition bias, which warrant further research., (Copyright © 2019 American Journal of Preventive Medicine. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Exercise is well known to enhance a variety of mood states, but few studies have been specifically designed to investigate whether acute aerobic exercise alters feelings of anger. The goal of this study was to determine the magnitude of the effects of acute exercise on both angry mood and angry emotions., Methods: Angry mood and angry emotions were assessed in 16 men with elevated trait anger who viewed a variety of emotionally evocative scenic pictures before and after 30 min of moderate- to vigorous-intensity aerobic exercise. Angry mood, captured by self-reports of state anger, angry emotions, as indexed by event-related brain activity (e.g., early posterior negativity and late positive potential), and self-reports of anger intensity were measured., Results: The results indicate that acute exercise both 1) reduces angry mood and 2) mitigates angry mood induction but does not change the intensity of angry emotions or the associated event-related potential responses to anger-inducing pictures in college-age men who have elevated trait anger., Conclusion: Future studies should explore the mechanisms underlying the effect of exercise on preventing angry mood induction, consider alternative anger induction methods that might induce higher levels of angry emotions, and test the effects of chronic exercise training on anger and its expression.

Background: Few studies have examined the moderating role of neighbourhood environments on the relation between psychosocial factors and physical activity, and results of these studies are mixed. This study examined this relationship in 636 fifth to seventh graders from South Carolina, USA., Methods: From 2010 to 2013, children and their parent/guardian completed annual self-reported surveys assessing psychosocial factors, and children wore accelerometers for 1 week each year. Neighbourhood environments were classified as supportive or non-supportive for physical activity (PA) based on in-person audits of facilities near children's homes and windshield surveys of children's streets. Growth curve analyses were completed to assess the moderating effect of the neighbourhood physical activity environment (NPAE) on the relation between psychosocial factors and total physical activity (TPA) over time., Results: Significant interactions on TPA were found for (1) time, NPAE and parent-reported parent support for PA; (2) time, NPAE and child-reported equipment in the home; (3) child-reported parental support for PA and time; (4) child-reported parental support for PA and NPAE; (5) PA self-schema and time and (6) child-reported parental encouragement and time. Parental support and a supportive NPAE were important for TPA, especially as children transitioned to middle school, whereas home equipment and a supportive NPAE were important for fifth graders' TPA., Conclusion: Consistent with the socioecological model, PA behaviour was dependent on interacting effects across levels of influence. Generally, both a supportive NPAE and positive psychosocial factors were needed to support TPA. Factors influencing PA across multiple levels should be addressed in PA interventions., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2019. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Objective: To examine whether the decline in physical activity observed from childhood through adolescence is explained by moderating effects of self-efficacy on concurrent changes in children's goals and beliefs about their physical activity environments., Method: Latent growth modeling was used in longitudinal tests in a cohort of 79 boys and 108 girls assessed in 5th, 6th, 7th, 9th, and 11th grades., Results: Physical activity measured objectively by an accelerometer declined most in students who had bigger declines in self-efficacy and (1) maintained higher perceptions of barriers to physical activity, (2) had bigger declines in enjoyment and fitness goals, or (3) had smaller declines in appearance and social goals., Conclusions: Trials of physical activity interventions based on social-cognitive theory should consider that the influence of changing goals on physical activity may differ according to whether students maintain high efficacy beliefs about overcoming barriers to physical activity coincident with perceptions of their physical activity environment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Purpose: This study tested whether the severity of somatization, panic, generalized anxiety, and depression symptoms mediated relationships between physical activity and pain using structural equation modeling., Methods: College women (n = 1036; mean = SD age of 19.7 ± 3.0 years) reported past week physical activity and the presence of persistent pain (≥1 month). The Psychiatric Diagnostic Screening Questionnaire assessed hypothesized mediators of physical activity effects on pain via symptoms of generalized anxiety, panic, major depressive disorder, and somatization disorder., Results: The percentage of the sample screening positive was 15.7% for generalized anxiety, 5.8% for panic, 11.0% for major depressive, and 16.0% for somatization. The hypothesized model had good fit and accounted for a significant amount of variance in pain (9.1%). Direct paths from physical activity to somatization, generalized anxiety, major depressive disorder, and panic disorder were significant. Paths to pain were significant from somatization and panic disorder. The path from physical activity to pain was not direct but indirect and through significant paths to pain from somatization and panic disorder. Each standard deviation increase in physical activity decreased the probability of pain by 11.0% through panic disorder and 10.7% through somatization disorder., Conclusions: Physical activity is associated with pain indirectly through associations with panic disorder and somatization disorder symptoms in college women., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Interventions to promote physical activity in children should be informed by knowledge of the factors that influence physical activity behavior during critical developmental transitions. The purpose of this study is to identify, from a comprehensive, multidomain set of factors, those that are associated with change in objectively measured physical activity in children as they transition from elementary to middle school., Methods: The study used a prospective cohort design, with children observed in fifth, sixth, and seventh grades. Growth curve analyses were used to examine associations between exposure variables measured at baseline and children's physical activity across three observations. A total of 828 children, aged 10.6 (SD=0.5) years at baseline provided physical activity data in fifth grade and at one or both follow-ups. Exposure variables assessed child characteristics, parent characteristics, home characteristics, social factors, school environment, and community characteristics. Physical activity was measured via accelerometry. Data were collected in two school districts in South Carolina in 2010-2013 and analyzed in 2017., Results: Variables measured within the child, parent/home, and community domains were positively associated with children's physical activity as they transitioned from fifth to seventh grade. These included parent encouragement of physical activity, parental support for physical activity, child sports participation, parent's report of the child's physical activity level, the child's time spent outdoors, social spaces for physical activity in the community, and the number of physical activity facilities that were proximal to the child's home., Conclusions: Interventions designed to increase children's physical activity should include strategies that target multiple domains of influence., (Copyright © 2018 American Journal of Preventive Medicine. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Physical activity (PA) can protect against depression, but few studies have assessed whether meeting PA guidelines is sufficient, or if benefits can be derived from greater volumes of PA. The present study examines cross-sectional and prospective associations between different volumes of moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) and walking, and depressive symptoms and status. Participants (n = 4556; 56.7% female) aged ≥ 50 years completed the International PA Questionnaire (IPAQ) at baseline and the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale at baseline and two years later. Prevalence and incidence of depression were 9.0% (n = 410) and 5.0% (n = 207), respectively. After full adjustment, odds of prevalent depression were: 40% (OR = 0.60, 95%CI: 0.48-0.76) lower among those meeting PA guidelines; 23% (OR = 0.77, 0.49-1.21) and 43% (OR = 0.57, 0.45-0.73) lower among those in moderate and high categories, respectively; and, 22% (OR = 0.78, 0.61-1.01) and 44.0% (OR = 0.56, 0.42-0.74) lower among those in moderate and high walking tertiles, respectively. Odds of incident depression were: 23% (OR = 0.77, 0.58-1.04) lower among those meeting PA guidelines; 37% (OR = 0.63, 0.32-1.22) and 20.0% (OR = 0.80, 0.59-1.09) lower among those in moderate and high categories, respectively; and, 21% (OR = 0.79, 0.56-1.12) and 25% (OR = 0.75, 0.52-1.07) lower among those in moderate and high walking tertiles, respectively. Moderate and high volumes of MVPA were significantly associated with lower odds of concurrent depression, and significantly and non-significantly associated with reduced odds of incident depression, respectively. Meeting recommended levels of MVPA and walking were associated with significantly lower odds of concurrent depression, and non-significantly reduced odds of the development of depression over two years., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is prevalent and costly. Physical activity (PA) may protect against other mental health disorders, including depression, but its protective effect on GAD remains under-studied in the general population and unstudied among older adults. Therefore, the present study examines associations between meeting World Health Organization PA guidelines (i.e. ≥150 min of moderate PA, ≥75 min of vigorous PA or ≥600MET min of moderate and vigorous PA weekly) and the prevalence of probable GAD and incidence of GAD., Methods: Participants (n  =  3950; 56.2% female) aged ≥50 years completed the short-form International Physical Activity Questionnaire and the abbreviated Penn State Worry Questionnaire at baseline and the Composite International Diagnostic Interview - Short Form to clinically assess GAD 2 years later. Prospective analyses included participants without probable GAD at baseline (n  =  3236)., Results: Prevalence and incidence of GAD were 18.1% (n  =  714) and 0.9% (n  =  29), respectively. More respondents with GAD were female (72.2% vs 52.7%), aged 50-59 years (51.7% vs 38.7%), had normal waist circumference (52.7% vs 47.8) and smoked (20.4% vs 13.3%; all P <0.05). Meeting PA guidelines was associated with 25% and 63% lower odds of prevalent [odds ratio (OR)  =  0.75, 95% confidence interval: 0.64 to 0.88] and incident (OR  =  0.37, 0.17 to 0.85) GAD, respectively, in crude models, and 17% and 57% lower odds of prevalent (OR  =  0.83, 0.70 to 0.98) and incident (OR  =  0.43, 0.19 to 0.99) GAD, respectively, following adjustment for age, sex, waist circumference, social class and smoking., Conclusions: In addition to established physical health benefits of PA, the present findings support the importance of increasing PA at the population-level for mental health.

Context: Hypotension that occurs after a single bout of aerobic exercise also attenuates the vascular response to discrete stressors, an effect that can last for hours. It is unknown whether the hypotensive benefits of traditional exercise extend to alternative forms of mindful exercise, such as yoga, to confer transient protection against neurovascular challenges that increase blood pressure (BP)., Objectives: The study intended to examine the effects of acute exercise on neurovascular responses to exposure of the forehead of female yoga practitioners to vasoconstrictive cold (ie, to cold pressor stress)., Design: The research team designed a study with 3 conditions (ie, with participants' participation in 3 activities on separate days in a repeated-measures design). Participants were randomly assigned to perform the activities in 1 of 3 orders across successive visits., Participants: Participants were 9 females, 20 to 33 y old, who had regularly practiced Hatha yoga from 6 mo to 12 y before the start of the study. All participants were normotensive at entry to the study and had normal body weights for their heights., Interventions: All participants performed 3 activities: (1) self-directed yoga practice, the intervention; (2) cycling exercise at a self-selected intensity, a positive control; and (3) quiet rest, a negative control., Outcome Measures: Postintervention, participants' foreheads were exposed to cold. Their systolic blood pressures (SBPs), diastolic blood pressures (DBPs), pulse rates, and forearm oxygenation were assessed using near-infrared spectroscopy., Results: Participants' SBPs and DBPs increased during cold pressor stress under all conditions, concurrent with decreased forearm oxygenation. During recovery from the cold, participants' BPs declined to near precold pressor baseline levels after yoga and cycling but remained elevated after quiet rest., Conclusions: The enhanced recovery of BP from cold applied to the forehead after yoga practice or cycling exercise suggests that both types of exercise promote a hypotensive response, which could indicate lowered cardiovascular risk.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine whether naturally occurring changes in intrinsic motivation, behavioral regulation, and goals mitigate declining physical activity among adolescents., Methods: Latent growth modeling was applied in tests of change in intrinsic motivation, facets of behavioral regulation, and their interactions with goals on change in physical activity measured by accelerometer in a cohort of 260 boys and girls evaluated longitudinally from sixth through ninth grades., Results: Physical activity declined less in youths who maintained higher intrinsic motivation or integrated regulation, but only when they maintained higher enjoyment goal compared with other students. Physical activity also declined less in students who maintained higher intrinsic motivation or integrated motivation and had bigger declines in appearance goal (or social and competence goals with intrinsic motivation) compared with students who maintained higher levels of those goals. The interactions correspond to 1 to 2 min·h less decrease in physical activity., Conclusions: Consistent with Self-Determination Theory, the findings encourage interventions that target autonomous motivation among youths. The results extend prior evidence in three ways. First, the cohort was tracked for 3 yr using an objective measure of physical activity. Second, influences of intrinsic motivation and integrated regulation on changing physical activity were not direct. They interacted with changing goals, indicating that interventions should also focus on specific goals for physical activity as effect modifiers. Third, interventions focused on autonomous motivation should consider that controlled, introjected motivation may also interact with goals to influence physical activity during the transition between middle school and high school.

Purpose: To determine whether naturally-occurring changes in children's motives and beliefs are associated with the steep decline in physical activity observed from childhood to early adolescence., Methods: Latent growth modeling was applied in longitudinal tests of social-cognitive influences, and their interactions, on physical activity in a large cohort of boys and girls evaluated annually between 5th and 7th grades., Results: Measurement equivalence of motives and beliefs was confirmed between boys and girls. After adjustment for gender and maturity differences, physical activity declined less in children who reported the least decreases in self-efficacy for overcoming barriers to activity and perceived parental support. Physical activity also declined less in students who persistently felt they had more parental and friend support for activity compared to those who reported the largest decrease in support from friends. After further adjustment for race, the decline in physical activity was less in those who had the largest decrease in perceived barriers and maintained a favorable perception of their neighborhood environment. Changes in enjoyment and social motives were unrelated to change in physical activity., Conclusion: Using an objective measure of physical activity, we confirm that naturally-occurring changes in children's beliefs about barriers to physical activity and their ability to overcome them, as well as perceptions of their neighborhood environment and social support, are concurrent with age-related declines in children's physical activity. The longitudinal findings confirm these putative social-cognitive mediators as plausible, interacting targets of interventions designed to mitigate the marked decline in physical activity that occurs during the transition between elementary and middle schools., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Objectives: This study examined the longitudinal associations of objectively measured physical activity, sedentary behavior, and diet quality with two measures of adiposity and a measure of weight status., Methods: A total of 658 children from 21 elementary schools (45.1% boys; 40% white, 33% black, 9% Hispanic, and 18% other race/ethnicity) were assessed at least twice in fifth, sixth, and/or seventh grade. Fat mass index (FMI), percent body fat (PBF), and BMI were calculated from body weight, standing and seated heights, and bioelectrical impedance (BIA) measured each year., Results: At follow-up, both FMI and PBF decreased among boys and increased among girls, while BMI increased in both boys and girls. After controlling for race/ethnicity, parent education, and maturity offset at baseline, growth curve analyses showed that moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was significantly and negatively associated with FMI, PBF, and BMI for both boys and girls. After forming tertiles of fifth grade MVPA, least-square means for FMI, PBF, and BMI were examined by grade and gender. For both boys and girls, higher MVPA was associated with lower FMI, PBF, and BMI at all three grade levels. The relationships between sedentary behavior and diet quality and FMI, PBF, and BMI were not consistent for boys or girls., Conclusions: As boys and girls transitioned from elementary to middle school, children who participated in higher levels of MVPA maintained more favorable levels of two indicators of adiposity and a measure of weight status. These findings support the need for interventions to help children meet current public health guidelines for physical activity., Competing Interests: Author Disclosure Statement No competing financial interests exist.

Objective: Prior attempts to measure psychological responses to exercise are potentially limited by a failure to account for participants' expectations, the absence of a valid exercise placebo, and demand characteristics. The purpose of this study was to explore the main and interactive effects of a manipulation designed to increase expectations about the psychological benefits of an acute bout of active, light-intensity (treatment), and passive (placebo) cycling on mood and cognition. Demand characteristics were attenuated during recruitment, informed consent, and interactions with test administrators by communicating to participants that the study purpose was to assess the effects of active and passive cycling on respiration, heart rate, and muscle activation., Methods: A repeated-measures, randomized, placebo-controlled design (n = 60) was used with cycling (active, passive) and information (informed, not informed) as between-subjects factors. State anxiety, feelings of energy, and working memory (percent accuracy and reaction time for correct responses) were measured at baseline (time 1), immediately after cycling (time 2) and 20 minutes after cycling (time 3)., Results: Most participants did not guess the purpose of the study (~92%) or expect a reduction in state anxiety (85%) or an increase in energy (80%) or cognitive performance (~93%). Mood and cognitive performance were not improved by active or passive cycling (all p values ≥ .12)., Conclusions: The methods used here to disguise the experimental hypotheses provide a potential framework for reducing demand characteristics and placebo responses in future investigations of psychological responses to exercise.

Purpose: A prominent symptom of myalgic encephalomyelitis, chronic fatigue syndrome, or systemic exertion intolerance disease (ME/CFS/SEID) is persistent fatigue that is worsened by physical exertion. Here the population effect of a single bout of exercise on fatigue symptoms in people with ME/CFS/SEID was estimated and effect moderators were identified., Methods: Google Scholar was systematically searched for peer-reviewed articles published between February 1991 and May 2015. Studies were included where people diagnosed with ME/CFS/SEID and matched control participants completed a single bout of exercise and fatigue self-reports were obtained before and after exercise. Fatigue means, standard deviations, and sample sizes were extracted to calculate effect sizes and the 95% confidence interval. Effects were pooled using a random-effects model and corrected for small sample bias to generate mean Δ. Multilevel regression modeling adjusted for nesting of effects within studies. Moderators identified a priori were diagnostic criteria, fibromyalgia comorbidity, exercise factors (intensity, duration, and type), and measurement factors., Results: Seven studies examining 159 people with ME/CFS/SEID met inclusion criteria, and 47 fatigue effects were derived. The mean fatigue effect was Δ = 0.73 (95% confidence interval = 0.24-1.23). Fatigue increases were larger for people with ME/CFS/SEID when fatigue was measured 4 h or more after exercise ended rather than during or immediately after exercise ceased., Conclusions: This preliminary evidence indicates that acute exercise increases fatigue in people with ME/CFS/SEID more than that in control groups, but effects were heterogeneous between studies. Future studies with no-exercise control groups of people with ME/CFS/SEID are needed to obtain a more precise estimate of the effect of exercise on fatigue in this population., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The results of the present study do not constitute endorsement by The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM).

Accumulating evidence suggests that the pre-dementia syndrome mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is characterized by decrements in instrumental activities of daily living (IADL). The current review was a quantitative synthesis of the available literature to objectively characterize IADL disability in MCI while clarifying inconsistencies in findings across studies. It was hypothesized that individuals with MCI would display significantly greater functional impairment relative to cognitively intact controls. Candidate moderators specified a priori included functional assessment approach, MCI subtype, depressive symptoms, and language conducted. Online databases (PubMed/MEDLINE and PsycINFO) and reference lists were searched to identify peer-reviewed publications assessing IADL in MCI compared to normal aging. A total of 151 effect sizes derived from 106 studies met inclusionary criteria (N = 62,260). Random effects models yielded a large overall summary effect size (Hedges' g = 0.76, 95 % confidence interval: 0.68 - 0.83, p < .001) confirmed in multi-level analyses adjusted for nesting of effect sizes within studies (g = 0.78, 95 % confidence interval: 0.69 - 0.87). Functional assessment strategy and MCI subtype were significant moderators of effect size, whereas depressive symptoms and language were not. Results convincingly demonstrate that MCI is associated with significant difficulties in the performance of complex everyday tasks. It appears that functional decline, like cognitive decline, exists on a continuum from healthy aging to dementia onset. Implications for clinical practice and research priorities are discussed.

Objectives: We identified classes of physical activity (PA) and sedentary behaviors (SB) in 5th grade children, associated factors, and trajectories of change into 7th grade., Methods: This study included N = 495 children (221 boys, 274 girls) who participated in the Transitions and Activity Changes in Kids (TRACK) Study. PA was assessed objectively as well as by self-report. Children, parents, and school administrators completed surveys to assess related factors. Latent class analysis, growth modeling, and adjusted multinomial logistic regression procedures were used to classify children based on self-reported PA and SB and examine associated factors., Results: Three classes of behavior were identified: Class 1: Low PA/Low SB; Class 2: Moderate PA/ High SB; and Class 3: High PA/High SB (boys) or Class 3: High PA (girls). Class 3 children had higher levels of self-efficacy (boys), and enjoyment, parental support, and physical activity equipment at home (girls). Class 2 boys and Class 3 girls did not experience decline in PA (accelerometer) over time., Conclusions: Self-efficacy (boys) and home environment (girls) may play a role in shaping patterns of PA in children. Findings may help to inform future interventions to encourage children to meet national PA guidelines., Competing Interests: DISCLOSURE STATEMENT All authors of this article declare they have no conflicts of interest.

Introduction: Feelings of fatigue are reduced after a session of continuous exercise of low-to-moderate intensity lasting 20 min or more, but only when feelings of energy are increased. Feelings of fatigue and energy have not been described after fatiguing, high-intensity interval exercise. Cerebral oxygenation has been implicated as a central correlate of fatigability, but it has not been studied concurrent with perceived fatigue during or after exercise., Methods: Fifteen recreationally active participants (8 women, 7 men) completed bouts of sprint interval cycling (four, 30-s all-out sprints each followed by 4 min of active recovery) and a time- and work-matched bout of constant resistance cycling. Oxygenation (oxygenated hemoglobin [HbO2]) and deoxygenation (deoxygenated hemoglobin [HHb]) in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex were measured using near-infrared spectroscopy. Fatigue ratings during each sprint and feelings of fatigue and energy during recovery were assessed., Results: Increases in HbO2 and HHb in frontal cortex were greater during sprint cycling than during constant resistance cycling (P = 0.001). Fatigability (decreased power output) increased over successive sprints (P = 0.001). About 95% of the increase in fatigue ratings across sprints (P < 0.001) was accounted for by fatigability and cortical HbO2. Feelings of fatigue were decreased (P < 0.001) and feelings of energy were increased (P < 0.05) across sprint recovery periods but were unchanged during constant resistance cycling. About 85% of the changes in feelings of fatigue or energy during recovery were explained by fatigue ratings across sprints and maximum HbO2 in the cortex during recovery., Conclusion: Repeated, high-intensity sprints were fatiguing, but paradoxical reductions in feelings of fatigue and increases in feelings of energy occurred during recovery that were accounted for by ratings of fatigue during exercise and oxygenation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during recovery.

Background: Resistance training (RT) has been investigated as a potential intervention strategy for improving muscle function, but the effects on lower-extremity muscle power in middle-aged and older adults have not been systematically reviewed., Objective: The aim of this meta-analysis is to provide a quantitative estimate of the effect of RT on lower-extremity muscle power in middle-aged and older adults and to examine independent moderators of this relationship., Methods: Randomized controlled trials that examined the effects of RT on either leg press (LP) or knee extension (KE) muscle power in adults aged ≥50 years were included. Data were aggregated with meta-analytic techniques, and multi-level modeling was used to adjust for nesting effects. A total of 52 effects from 12 randomized controlled trials were analyzed with a random-effects model to estimate the effect of RT on lower-extremity muscle power. A multiple-regression analysis was conducted to examine independent moderators of the mean effect., Results: The adjusted aggregated results from all studies indicate that RT has a small-to-moderate effect on lower-extremity muscle power (Hedges' d = 0.34, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.25-0.43), which translated to 54.90 watts (95 % CI 40.37-69.43). Meta-regression analyses indicated that high-velocity RT was superior to traditional RT (Δ = 0.62 vs. 0.20, respectively) for increasing lower-extremity muscle power. In addition, training volume significantly moderated the effect of RT on muscle power., Conclusion: The findings from this meta-analysis indicate that RT is an efficacious intervention strategy for improving LP and KE muscle power in adults aged ≥50 years. Training mode and volume independently moderate the effect of RT on lower-extremity muscle power, and should be considered when prescribing RT exercise for middle-aged and older adults.

Background: A positive association between physical activity and mental health is well established, particularly for lower symptoms of depression and anxiety among active adults. However, it is unclear whether the association is influenced by personality, which might moderate or otherwise explain the association. In addition, past studies have not confirmed the association using an objective measure of physical activity., Objective: Our objective was to examine whether Extraversion and Neuroticism influence the association between mental health and physical activity measured by convergent self-reports and an accelerometer., Methods: Structural equation modeling was used to test competing models of the relationships between personality, physical activity, and mental health in a sample of female undergraduates., Results: In bivariate analysis, mental health was negatively related to Neuroticism and positively related to Extraversion, self-reported physical activity (which was related only to Extraversion, positively), and objective physical activity (which was related only to Neuroticism, negatively). In structural equation modeling, a 3-way interaction indicated that objective physical activity and mental health were unrelated in extraverts, but related positively in neurotic-introverts and negatively in stable-introverts., Conclusions: Higher levels of physical activity were associated with better mental health only in neurotic-introverts, who are at higher risk for mental health problems.