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This meta-analysis enhances our insight into the effectiveness of interventions aimed at improving eudaemonic well-being. The focal outcome of these interventions is Ryff's Scales of Psychological Well-being. We summarized experimental studies and concluded whether a specific intervention approach improves individual positive functioning by assessing the six dimensions of psychological well-being and the composite score of well-being. Our study confirmed that eudaemonic well-being can be improved. The strongest influence is seen in integral programs that link directly to Ryff's conceptual model. Breaking down to dimensional scores, existing interventions had the strongest influence on Environmental Mastery, Personal Growth, and Self-Acceptance. The weakest influence was on Autonomy and Positive Relations with Others. Overall, our result is an important contribution to the well-being literature in that it shows, more convincing than previous meta-analyses due to its exclusive and comprehensive focus on Ryff's model, that psychological eudaemonic well-being can be enhanced by targeted intervention programs.

PurposeThis paper aims to examine the influence of the interplay between servant leadership behaviors and Machiavellianism on leader effectiveness.Design/methodology/approachDrawing on trait activation theory and motivation to lead theory, the authors hypothesize that the effect of servant leadership behaviors on perceived leadership effectiveness is manifested differently in teams with high-Machiavellian vs. low-Machiavellian leaders. In teams with low-Machiavellian leaders, servant leadership behaviors are expected to be associated with a cooperative way of handling team conflicts, which enhances employees' leader effectiveness ratings. In contrast, in teams with high-Machiavellian leaders, this mediation role vanishes due to the incongruency between Machiavellian traits and the cooperative context. The authors conducted a two-wave survey-based study and tested the hypotheses with a matched supervisor-employee sample from 310 employees and their leaders in 91 teams.FindingsThe results showed that servant leadership behaviors positively impact leadership effectiveness and that this effect takes place through cooperative team conflict management (TCM) without controlling for leaders' Machiavellian trait. Further analysis shows this mediation mechanism is only strong and significant in teams led by low-Machiavellian leaders, but not high-Machiavellian leaders.Originality/valueTo the authors’ best knowledge, this is the first study that examines the interplay of servant leadership behaviors and Machiavellianism on perceived leader effectiveness.

This article provides a contrasting perspective between populist and servant leadership. We propose four key differences based on distinct views on people centricity, the role of the people in the leadership process, the problem solving approach and the preferred leader role. Given the key function that meaning plays in leadership discourse, in particular during times of uncertainty and change, we further propose that populist leaders make use of simplistic meaning-making systems that emphasize monistic and over-simplified views around polarized options, while servant leaders in contrast use complex meaning-making systems that emphasize pluralist and reconciled views towards shared problem solving. Considering that populist leadership often makes references to serving, humility and self-sacrifice in defence of the people, we find it important to distinguish it from servant leadership. We advance, in fact, that servant leaders can function as an antidote to populism, being a genuine people centred approach with a reconciliatory and pluralist view and an adequate (but surely not perfect) response to many of our societal problems.MAD statementPopulism is on the rise, even in well-established democracies. Driven by galloping inequality, technological disruption, growing migration, and a resurge of nationalistic sentiments, populist leaders seem to strive on an overall feeling of insecurity and resentment. The recent COVID19 crisis has contributed to this trend. Populist speeches are often infused with an apparent motivation to serve the people and leader self-sacrifice. In this article we want to dispel this apparent similarity with servant leadership and expose the contrast between the two. By doing that we aim to contribute to a better understanding of servant and populist leadership processes and to enable people to distinguish more easily between the two in real life contexts.

This article presents the results of an examination of self-determination theory; in this examination, the theory is extended through deeper insight into the compensatory association between autonomy and relatedness satisfaction. This study is designed to investigate whether the mutual influence of autonomy satisfaction and relatedness satisfaction on positive affect (PA), negative affect (NA), and aggressive feelings is best described as compensatory. The results of two laboratory studies verify a compensatory relationship and confirm a mediation by meaningful existence. The results verify the compensation effects of high relatedness satisfaction on NA and aggressive feelings when autonomy satisfaction is low. With role-playing and nonrole-playing digital game manipulation, the results are stronger when the participants were being themselves rather than playing a character.

We connected self-determination theory (SDT) and escape theory to deepen the understanding of the antecedents of cognitive deconstruction by introducing autonomy and relatedness satisfaction. Based on three laboratory experiments, results showed a limited determining role of autonomy satisfaction (Experiment 1); however, the causal relationship strengthened when autonomy satisfaction was in conjunction with relatedness satisfaction (Experiments 2 and 3). Relatedness satisfaction constantly predicts all symptoms of cognitive deconstruction. Importantly, all independent explanatory powers of the two require satisfactions when explaining that the symptoms of cognitive deconstruction were qualified by their interaction terms. Regardless of relatedness satisfaction, autonomy satisfaction always positively relates to time orientation. The relationship between autonomy satisfaction and meaninglessness is only negative when relatedness satisfaction is low. The relationship between autonomy satisfaction and delayed gratification is only positive when relatedness satisfaction is high.

Despite the emphasis of servant leadership theory on the attention provided to workers’ needs and goals, there is a lack of empirical knowledge on the relationship between servant leadership and employees’ goal attainment. We provide a theoretical model of the mechanism by which this strong focus of servant leadership on a worker’s individual development positively influences the worker’s goal attainment. Through a diary study with 126 workers over five consecutive working days, the results indicated a positive within-person indirect effect of servant leader behaviors on goal attainment a day later through two parallel paths: the meaning in life at night and vitality the next morning. These results provide the first empirical support for the assumption of servant leadership as a promoter of employees’ goals, and highlights how servant leadership positively influences the integration of work as part of life and the energy resources of workers to achieve their daily goals.

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to develop and validate a Japanese version of the Servant Leadership Scale and to clarify the relationship between servant leadership (SL) and well-being among Japanese workers. Methods: After the Japanese version of the SLS (SLS-J) and of its short form (SLS-J-short) were developed in conformity with the guidelines (Wild et al., 2005), a web-based survey was administered to 516 Japanese employees (20 or older and have a supervisor). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to evaluate a construct validation of the SLS-J and the SLS-J-short. Convergent validity was estimated with theoretically related constructs (e.g., transformational leadership, supervisory support, and interpersonal justice) and potential consequences of SL (e.g., affective commitment, work engagement, job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), psychological distress, and work performance). Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) using the test-retest method was conducted with 104 of the initial respondents to assess internal consistency reliability. Additionally, the effects of SL on employees’ work engagement and the mediating role of employees’ affective commitment were estimated. Results: CFA confirmed that an eight-factor model (SLS-J) and a five-factor model (SLS-J-short) had the most satisfactory fits for the two scales with Japanese workers. Tests of convergent validity and reliability showed sufficiency for each of the dimensions of SLS-J and SLS-J-short. Additionally, it was revealed that SL has an impact on employees’ work engagement through a mediation of affective commitment at a cross-sectional level, and the indirect association between SL and work engagement via affective commitment remained afterward. Conclusion: SLS-J and SLS-J-short were confirmed to have good reliability and validity for Japanese workers. Also, this study found that SL has an important role in enhancing the engagement of workers.

Background Medical specialists experience high levels of stress. This has an impact on their well-being, but also on quality of their leadership. In the current mixed method study, the feasibility and effectiveness of a course Mindful Leadership on burnout, well-being and leadership skills of medical specialists were evaluated. Methods This is a non-randomized controlled pre-post evaluation using self-report questionnaires administered at 3 months before (control period), start and end of the training (intervention period). Burn-out symptoms, well-being and leadership skills were assessed with self-report questionnaires. Semi-structured interviews were used to qualitatively evaluate barriers and facilitators for completion of the course. Results From September 2014 to June 2016, 52 medical specialists participated in the study. Of these, 48 (92%) completed the course. Compared to the control period, the intervention period resulted in greater reductions of depersonalization (mean difference = − 1.2, p = 0.06), worry (mean difference = − 4.3, p = 0.04) and negative work-home interference (mean difference = − 0.2, p = 0.03), and greater improvements of mindfulness (mean difference = 0.5, p = 0.04), life satisfaction (mean difference = 0.4, p = 0.01) and self-reported ethical leadership (mean difference = 0.1, p = 0.02). Effect sizes were generally small to medium (0.3 to 0.6) and large for life satisfaction (0.8). Appreciation of course elements was a major facilitator and the difficulty of finding time a major barrier for participating. Conclusions A ‘Mindful Leadership’ course was feasible and not only effective in reducing burnout symptoms and improving well-being, but also appeared to have potential for improving leadership skills. Mindful leadership courses could be a valuable part of ongoing professional development programs for medical specialists.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to provide a new interpretation of underestimation for the particular case of servant leadership, contending the ideas that underestimation is caused by lack of self-awareness or low self-esteem, and that self-other agreement is a necessary condition for self-awareness. Additional reflections are provided on the development of servant leadership in organizations. Design/methodology/approach A revision of the self-other agreement literature was done, with a focus on underestimation. The theoretical foundations of servant leadership were analysed. The main hypothesis was derived, including a set of supporting propositions. An empirical study was conducted based on a polynomial regression and 3D surface analysis, including 36 managers and 160 followers. Findings Underestimation was the strongest predictor of servant leadership effectiveness in generating psychological empowerment amongst followers. The theoretical revision provides arguments to support the claim that servant leaders underestimate themselves because of their humility and valuing of others. Practical implications With the increasing adoption of servant leadership, this study supports the need to develop specific processes for detecting, assessing, and developing servant leaders in organizations. Additional care is necessary on the interpretation of self-other ratings through 360-degree instruments in light of the leadership model being considered. Originality/value It is the first empirical study within the self-other leadership agreement that incorporates servant leadership. It provides an alternative explanation of underestimation for servant leaders. The paper also provides a reflection on the practical implications of underestimation for developing servant leadership in organizations.

ObjectivesMedical leaders are facing leadership challenges that ask for a leadership style that takes care of both themselves and their coworkers. Mindfulness may support this leadership style. We explored how a ‘Mindful leadership for medical specialists’ course affected medical specialists’ leadership.DesignWe conducted a qualitative study based on in-depth interviews. The grounded theory method was used to analyse the data.SettingA university medical centre in the Netherlands.ParticipantsSeventeen medical specialists (six male) with an average age of 51 years (ranging from 40 to 66 years).InterventionsThe mindful leadership course consisted of 10-weekly 5-hour sessions that focused on cultivating mindfulness and compassion. In addition, sessions included didactic and interactional teaching about leadership theories.ResultsFour categories emerged from the data: (A) Self - Attitude: psychological attitude towards self, (B) Self - Behaviour: behaviour towards self, (C) Other - Attitude: psychological attitude towards others, and (D) Other - Behaviour: behaviour towards others. Themes were defined within these categories: awareness of self, open mind, insight and appreciation of self (A), emotional and cognitive self-regulation, letting go of unhelpful behaviour and developing helpful behaviour (B), differences in attitude to others such as awareness of (impact on) others, keeping an open mind about others, allowing difficult emotions associated with others, appreciating of others (C), and communicating more effectively, providing direction, empowering and caring for others (D).ConclusionsThe results help us understand the core elements of mindful leadership, both with respect to one’s psychological attitude and behaviour towards oneself and others. More research on mindful leadership and the effects on self and others is needed. Mindful leadership courses could be a valuable part of clinical training and might contribute to more sustainable healthcare organisations.

Notwithstanding the proliferation of servant leadership studies with over 100 articles published in the last four years alone, a lack of coherence and clarity around the construct has impeded its theory development. We provide an integrative and comprehensive review of the 285 articles on servant leadership spanning 20 years (1998–2018), and in so doing extend the field in four different ways. First, we provide a conceptual clarity of servant leadership vis-a-vis other value-based leadership approaches and offer a new definition of servant leadership. Second, we evaluate 16 existing measures of servant leadership in light of their respective rigor of scale construction and validation. Third, we map the theoretical and nomological network of servant leadership in relation to its antecedents, outcomes, moderators, mediators. We finally conclude by presenting a detailed future research agenda to bring the field forward encompassing both theoretical and empirical advancement. All in all, our review paints a holistic picture of where the literature has been and where it should go into the future.

This panel symposium brings together eminent and emerging servant leadership scholars to debate about the future and value of the servant leadership model. The goal of our panel is to explore the c...

The pervasiveness of multiple team membership in organizations that prioritize team creativity raises the important question of how multi-teaming affects creativity? Unfortunately, prior research on multi-teaming and creativity is limited to a few studies at the individual level. Knowing that the benefits and costs of multi- teaming are not homologous across levels of analysis, we address this question at the team level. We specifically examine key temporal (i.e., time pressure) and informational (i.e., information acquisition from other teams) mechanisms that underlie this relationship. We posit that the effect of multi-teaming on team creativity via time pressure is contingent on focal team synchronicity, and via information acquisition is contingent on focal team information usefulness. Our findings uncover a negative indirect effect of multi-teaming on team creativity via time pressure when the team communicates mostly in a synchronous manner. The informational path proved to be more complex. Though multi-teaming promoted information acquisition, this information resource did not facilitate team creativity when information usefulness is high. However, exploratory analyses revealed distinct effects on creative outcome novelty and usefulness. Our theoretical model was tested using time- lagged surveys in a sample of 92 teams based on 509 students in a university in the Netherlands."

Servant leadership, which prioritizes the interests of followers and other shareholders, is considered as a unique approach that offers much potential to enrich our understanding of leadership. Des...

The model introduced in this chapter aims to combine servant-leadership theory with human resource (HR) practices. It can be placed within the current wave of change in HR that requires HR professionals to really understand their business context and their key stakeholders. HR practices need to be organized around people and need to be an integral part of line management. Within this context, and addressing the clear practical needs of organizations, this chapter links servant leadership to key organizational challenges, placing the individual within the organizational setting and the societal context.

The studies of Leadership and HR-Management share a common goal: Developing a better understanding of how to effectively manage people in organizations. Despite this shared goal, these fields of research remain largely independent, with few studies considering how HRM and Leadership co-determine employee motivation and performance. This state of the literature is deplorable as Leadership and HRM have the potential to counterbalance each other; in theory as well as in research design. In this overview article to this special issue, we first highlight similarities and differences in approaches to people management by mapping key approaches to Leadership and HRM on a value framework. Next, we integrate theory on person-environment fit and strategic HR alignment to map seven possible ways in which Leadership and HRM may interact: Independent, Enactment, Supplementary Fit, Synergistic Fit, Complementary Fit, Perceptual Filter, and Dynamic Fit. We discuss the implications of this theoretical framework for future research that studies the intersection of Leadership and HRM. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Servant leadership has been theorized as a model where the moral virtue of humility co-exists with action-driven behavior. This article provides an empirical study that tests how these two apparently paradoxical aspects of servant leadership interact in generating follower engagement, while considering the hierarchical power of the leader as a contingency variable. Through a three-way moderation model, a study was conducted based on a sample of 232 people working in a diverse range of companies. The first finding is that humble leaders showed the highest impact on follower engagement regardless of their hierarchical position. Less humble leaders in lower hierarchical positions seem to be able to compensate for that through a strong action-oriented leadership style. Most notably for leaders in high hierarchical positions, the moral virtue of humility seems to strengthen the impact of their action-oriented leadership the most. These findings provide empirical support and a better understanding of the interplay between the moral virtue of humility and the action-oriented behaviors of servant leadership.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to focus on the role of the followers’ competence, will to achieve, and self-determination on a leader’s intention to support a followers’ sense of self-worth. Design/methodology/approach – Using an experimental scenario study design with a sample of 316 managers, a mediated three-way moderation model was investigated that tested the extent to which a new subordinate’s competence, self-determination, and will to achieve would influence the manager’s positive expectations of them and their willingness to support this subordinate’s sense of self-worth. Findings – The results showed that a subordinate’s competence plays a key role and that a subordinate’s will to achieve and self-determination played an additional role that was mediated by positive expectations of the leader. Practical implications – The key findings emphasize that leaders can benefit from understanding how dyadic relationships form and are influenced by the earliest phases of the development of such relationships. Originality/value – By taking the perspective of the leader, the paper provides empirical evidence of key determinants of the leader-follower relationship.

Servant leadership is increasingly gaining interest inside and outside academia. This article builds and extends current theorizing by describing the process that introduces compassionate love as a practical translation for the need to serve, which was positioned by Greenleaf (Servant leadership: a journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness, Paulist Press, New York, 1977) as the core of servant leadership. This article takes a virtues perspective and shows how servant leadership may encourage a more meaningful and optimal human functioning with a strong sense of community to current-day organizations. In essence, we propose that a leader’s propensity for compassionate love will encourage a virtuous attitude in terms of humility, gratitude, forgiveness and altruism. This virtuous attitude will give rise to servant leadership behavior in terms of empowerment, authenticity, stewardship and providing direction.

WOS: 000418117900001, This paper tests and confirms the cross-cultural equivalence of the Servant Leadership Survey (SLS) in eight countries and languages: The Netherlands, Portugal, Germany, Iceland, Italy, Spain, Turkey and Finland. A composite sample consisting of 5201 respondents from eight countries that all filled out the SLS was used. A three-step approach was adopted to test configural invariance, measurement equivalence, and structural equivalence. For the full 30-item version of the SLS, configural invariance and partial measurement equivalence were confirmed. Implications of these results for the use of the SLS within cross-cultural studies are discussed.

Setting goals is essential for motivating individuals. Individuals make use of different goal standards – minimal standards to at least achieve and maximal standards to aspire towards to – in order...

Despite the growing attention for the impact of selection procedures and outcomes on applicants, little is yet known about the factors that may influence these relationships. The general findings of a recent doctoral dissertation are presented in this article. The research in this dissertation was directed at investigating the separate and combined influences of selection feedback, fairness perceptions, and attributions on a diversity of applicant reactions: well-being, self-evaluations and perceptions of the organization. Based on four empirical studies it is shown that feedback and fairness do not merely have a positive influence on applicant reactions, and that attributional style plays an important role in the formation of reactions. Therefore, both organizations and applicants may benefit from more reflection on selection feedback and fairness by researchers and practitioners alike.Er is nog relatief weinig bekend over de invloed van selectieprocedures en -uitkomsten op sollicitanten. In dit artikel worden de algemene bevindingen beschreven van een aantal onderzoeken die onderdeel waren van een recent proefschrift. Deze onderzoeken waren gericht op de afzonderlijke en gezamenlijke invloed van rechtvaardigheidspercepties, selectiefeedback en attributies op diverse reacties van sollicitanten, zoals hun welzijn, zelf-evaluaties en organisatiepercepties. Aan de hand van vier empirische onderzoeken wordt aangetoond dat feedback en rechtvaardigheid niet altijd een louter positieve invloed op sollicitantreacties hebben en dat attributiestijl een rol speelt bij de vorming van deze reacties. Het zou daarom voor zowel sollicitanten als organisaties lonend kunnen zijn als er meer rekening wordt gehouden met de effecten van selectiefeedback en de rol van rechtvaardigheidspercepties.

As workforce diversity increases, knowledge of factors influencing whether cultural diversity results in team performance benefits is of growing importance. Complementing and extending earlier research, we develop and test theory about how achievement setting readily activates team member goal orientations that influence the diversity-performance relationship. In two studies, we identify goal orientation as a moderator of the performance benefits of cultural diversity and team information elaboration as the underlying process. Cultural diversity is more positive for team performance when team members' learning approach orientation is high and performance avoidance orientation is low. This effect is exerted via team information elaboration.

Purpose – This paper aims to focus on early career success as determined by a combination of what young professionals learned at school (in terms of their grades and academic competences) and how this, together with their self-regulatory focus, influenced their early objective career success in terms of salary growth and subjective career success, in terms of career satisfaction. Design/methodology/approach – Using an online survey, 247 alumni from a major business school in The Netherlands participated. Findings – The results showed that, within this sample, a person's goal orientation was an important determinant of subjective and objective career success. A master orientation was more beneficial than a performance orientation. In addition, a high mastery or a high performance orientation buffered the potential negative influence of low levels of academic competence and grades on career satisfaction. Originality/value – The study showed the limited predictive value of grades and academic competences to predict early career success.

Modern organizations are going through continuous changes and have to deal with high uncertainty due to the still growing worldwide competition and a quickly changing economic climate. This may have serious social implication for the wellbeing of the employees involved, which potentially leads to economic losses due to reduced productivity. The premise of this chapter is that servant leadership may make a significant difference in the successful rolling out of organizational change. Leaders play an essential role in shaping meaningful working conditions. This process of sense giving is even more important in times of change. The core reasoning is that servant leaders enhance a sense of meaningfulness through a combination of personal attention and by their ability to relate change to a larger picture that goes beyond the organization. Our model shows how servant leadership can be effective by working through four pathways (self-connection, unification, contribution, and individuation) in order to encourage a greater sense of meaningfulness among employees.

The 46-item Differentiation of Self Inventory—Revised (DSI-R) (Skowron & Schmitt, 2003) is perhaps the most widely used and psychometrically validated instrument measuring the family systems theory (Bowen, 1978) concept of differentiation of self. Given the substantial length of the DSI-R, Drake et al. (2015) offered the Differentiation of Self Inventory—Short Form (DSI-SF). However, based on limitations of the DSI-SF, we empirically validated a brief version of the 4-factor DSI-R using data from two adult samples (Sample 1: n = 541; Sample 2: n = 203). First, we conducted an EFA on the full 46-item DSI-R scale on Sample 1 to help us identify items most strongly representing each factor. Then we conducted CFAs comparing the model fit between our brief DSI, the DSI-SF, and the full DSI-R on both samples. Results indicated that the brief DSI had the strongest model fit in both samples. Finally, a comparison of associations among the brief DSI, the DSI-SF, and full DSI-R and various relevant variables showed similar correlations. The brief DSI provides counselors and researchers in the areas of psychology, organizational behavior, and business a useful measure of differentiation of self when circumstances prohibit the use of the full DSI-R.

The research reported in this paper was designed to study the influence of shared servant leadership on team performance through the mediating effect of team behavioural integration, while validating a new short measure of shared servant leadership. A round-robin approach was used to collect data in two similar studies. Study 1 included 244 undergraduate students in 61 teams following an intense HRM business simulation of two weeks. The following year, study 2 included 288 students in 72 teams involved in the same simulation. The most important findings were that (1) shared servant leadership was a strong determinant of team behavioural integration, (2) information exchange worked as the main mediating process between shared servant leadership and team performance, and (3) the essence of servant leadership can be captured on the key dimensions of empowerment, humility, stewardship and accountability, allowing for a new promising shortened four-dimensional measure of shared servant leadership.

The purpose of this longitudinal study among 212 Dutch prison officers was to enhance insight into the nature of the relationship between empowering leader behavior and follower psychological empowerment. Empowerment was conceptualized as intrinsic task motivation, manifested in a set of 4 cognitions reflecting the individual's work-role orientation. Data were analyzed with structural equation modeling using a cross-lagged panel design. The results showed that followers' belief to be able to affect organizational outcomes (i.e., impact) at Time 1 was related to increased delegation by the leader 3 months later. Furthermore, followers' perceptions of autonomy regarding initiation and regulation of one's own actions (i.e., self-determination) at Time 1 was related to increased accountability by the leader 3 months later. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

This paper aimed to investigate three issues. First, the validation of the multi-dimensional Servant Leadership Survey (SLS) within the Italian context. Second, to enhance insight into the degree of servant leadership behaviour displayed by Italian leaders in organizational settings. Third, to support the fact that in Italy, too, servant leadership is positively correlated to leadership integrity, organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behaviour while it is negatively correlated to cynicism towards one’s own work. A sample of about 800 adults, males and females, currently employed in profit and non-profit organizations, took part in the study. The factorial structure of SLS found support, and the survey showed satisfactory psychometric properties and reliability. Servant leadership expressed by Italian leaders turned out to be lower than in The Netherlands and in the UK. SLS scores were positively associated with leadership integrity, organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behaviour, and negatively associated for cynicism.

Purpose – The main aim of this study was to contribute to the change management literature by providing additional insight into how leadership encourages commitment to change.Design/methodology/approach – A sample of 135 employees of a reintegration company filled out a survey.Findings – Using structural equation modeling, the results showed that servant leadership and contingent reward leadership may contribute to a stronger sense of interactional justice, an optimistic attitude and commitment to change.Originality/value – This study contributes to the organizational change literature by providing a deeper insight into what aspect of leadership may be of essential importance for employees undergoing an organizational change process. It is the first study on the combined influence of servant leadership and contingent reward leadership in this process.

In the present study, the construct validity of a revised edition of the Belbin Team Roles measure is tested. This edition consists of three parts to determine someone's team roles. The sample included 1434 persons who were asked to fill out the self-perception inventory and the self-perception assessment sheet, and the Observer Assessment Sheet was filled out by at least four observers. The interrater agreement of the Observer Assessment Sheet was satisfactory across all team roles. As for the construct validity, which was studied in a multitrait–multimethod design using structural equation modelling, the results revealed that the discriminant and convergent validity for the instrument as a whole is good; a small effect could be contributed to method variance.

Servant leadership is positioned as a new field of research for leadership scholars. This review deals with the historical background of servant leadership, its key characteristics, the available measurement tools, and the results of relevant studies that have been conducted so far. An overall conceptual model of servant leadership is presented. It is argued that leaders who combine their motivation to lead with a need to serve display servant leadership. Personal characteristics and culture are positioned alongside the motivational dimension. Servant leadership is demonstrated by empowering and developing people; by expressing humility, authenticity, interpersonal acceptance, and stewardship; and by providing direction. A high-quality dyadic relationship, trust, and fairness are expected to be the most important mediating processes to encourage self-actualization, positive job attitudes, performance, and a stronger organizational focus on sustainability and corporate social responsibility.