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The cultivation of fast-growing tree species in short rotation coppices has gained popularity in Germany in recent years. The resilience of these coppices to phyllophagous pest organisms is crucial for their profitable management, since the loss of a single annual increment can lead to uncompensable economic losses. To study the effects of leaf loss on the growth of poplar and willow varieties that are frequently cultivated under local conditions, three sample short rotation coppices including five poplar (Populus spp.) and three willow (Salix spp.) varieties were established in a randomized block design with four artificial defoliation variants and, on one site, with three different variants regarding the number of defoliation treatments. After up to three defoliation treatments within two growing seasons, the results show negative effects of leaf loss on the height growth and the fresh weight of the aboveground biomass of plants. Our data also suggests a lasting effect of defoliation on plant growth and re-growth after the end of the treatment. In general, defoliation had a greater impact on the growth of poplars than on willows. We conclude that even minor leaf loss can have an impact on plant growth but that the actual effects of defoliation clearly depend on the site, tree species, and variety as well as the extent and number of defoliations, which determine the ability of plants for compensatory growth.

Cell biology is increasingly dependent on quantitative methods resulting in the need for microscopic labelling technologies that are highly sensitive and specific. Whilst the use of fluorescent proteins has led to major advances, they also suffer from their relatively low brightness and photo-stability, making the detection of very low abundance proteins using fluorescent protein-based methods challenging. Here, we characterize the use of the self-labelling protein tag called HaloTag, in conjunction with an organic fluorescent dye, to label and accurately count endogenous proteins present in very low numbers (Escherichia coli cells. This procedure can be used to detect single molecules in fixed cells with conventional epifluorescence illumination and a standard microscope. We show that the detection efficiency of proteins labelled with the HaloTag is ≥80%, which is on par or better than previous techniques. Therefore, this method offers a simple and attractive alternative to current procedures to detect low abundance molecules.

The cultivation of fast-growing tree species has noticeably increased worldwide in recent years [...]

Summary: The ε4 allele of apolipoprotein E (APOE4) is a genetic risk factor for many diseases, including late-onset Alzheimer’s disease (AD). We investigate the cellular consequences of APOE4 in human iPSC-derived astrocytes, observing an endocytic defect in APOE4 astrocytes compared with their isogenic APOE3 counterparts. Given the evolutionarily conserved nature of endocytosis, we built a yeast model to identify genetic modifiers of the endocytic defect associated with APOE4. In yeast, only the expression of APOE4 results in dose-dependent defects in both endocytosis and growth. We discover that increasing expression of the early endocytic adaptor protein Yap1802p, a homolog of the human AD risk factor PICALM, rescues the APOE4-induced endocytic defect. In iPSC-derived human astrocytes, increasing expression of PICALM similarly reverses endocytic disruptions. Our work identifies a functional interaction between two AD genetic risk factors—APOE4 and PICALM—centered on the conserved biological process of endocytosis.

A total of 37 different poplar varieties were grown in a randomized mini-rotation short rotation coppice (SRC) (harvest every three years) on a light sandy soil under continental climatic conditions in the south of the Federal State of Brandenburg, Germany. Along with well-known poplar varieties, newly bred ones that have not yet been approved for commercial use were selected for this study. Survival rates were determined after the first growing season in 2013 as well as at the first and second harvests in 2015 and 2018. Furthermore, the number of shoots, plant height, diameter at breast height, dry matter content and biomass yield of the varieties were recorded. After the second rotation period, only seven poplar varieties yielded more than 11 tadm ha&minus, 1 y&minus, 1 and can be recommended for commercial use. However, many varieties only reached about 8 tadm ha&minus, 1, and six varieties even had less than 4 tadm ha&minus, 1, among them newly bred varieties. Given the changing climate conditions, the cultivation of these varieties in SRC is not recommended. Our data also show that the biomass yield of several varieties decreased from the first to the second harvests. Since the survival rates were high and no damage by pest species was observed, the site-specific yield capacities of the individual clones are assumed to be the cause for this.

The use of camera traps is a nonintrusive monitoring method to obtain valuable information about the appearance and behavior of wild animals. However, each study generates thousands of pictures and extracting information remains mostly an expensive, time-consuming manual task. Nevertheless, image recognition and analyzing technologies combined with machine learning algorithms, particularly deep learning models, improve and speed up the analysis process. Therefore, we tested the usability of a pre-trained deep learning model available on the TensorFlow hub–FasterRCNN+InceptionResNet V2 network applied to images of ten different European wild mammal species such as wild boar (Sus scrofa), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), or red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in color as well as black and white infrared images. We found that the detection rate of the correct region of interest (region of the animal) was 94%. The classification accuracy was 71% for the correct species’ name as mammals and 93% for the correct species or higher taxonomic ranks such as “carnivore” as order. In 7% of cases, the classification was incorrect as the wrong species’ name was classified. In this technical note, we have shown the potential of an existing and pre-trained image classification model for wildlife animal detection, classification, and analysis. A specific training of the model on European wild mammal species could further increase the detection and classification accuracy of the models. Analysis of camera trap images could thus become considerably faster, less expensive, and more efficient.

Competition for above- and below-ground resources depends on their availability and results in varied growth partitioning. This becomes clear as the supply and limitation of the main resources influence the slope of the size-growth relationship in stands. Nevertheless, growth partitioning among trees, especially among black locust (R. pseudoacacia) trees is not understood in sufficient detail. To scrutinize and estimate the mode of competition of R. pseudoacacia, this research analyzed 1333 trees in Germany in 10 study sites, consisting in total 27 sample plots, with similar climate but varying soil conditions. The stand age ranged from 2 to 32 years, with a diameter at breast height ranging from 0.6 to 29.1 cm. The main focus of the study was to evaluate the impact of nitrogen, phosphorus, and water supply on the competition mode of R. pseudoacacia by varying growth partitioning. We applied the size–growth relationship in a mixed-effects model with a random intercept and slope. Fixed effects were the basal area, phosphorus, water, the sunlight competition index, and the interactions between below- and above-ground resources. Site specific effects of the analyzed stands were quantified with the aid of the random effects. Depending on the supply and limitation of phosphorus and water, this study determined how the competition mode as well as the growth partitioning among R. pseudoacacia trees were influenced. Hence, if phosphorus and water availability increased, then the competition for above-ground resources (primarily sunlight) and the slope of the size–growth relationship increased. Large trees grew disproportionately more than smaller trees. If the available phosphorus and water decreased, then the competition for the below-ground resources increased and the slope of the size–growth relationship decreased – to be more flattened. Moreover, it was found that available nitrogen as a below-ground resource had no influence on the mode of competition. In summary, phosphorus was the most important nutrient and, together with water, was the main driver of growth partitioning among R. pseudoacacia trees.

Studies that rely on fluorescent imaging of non-adherent cells that are cultured in suspension, such as Escherichia coli, are often hampered by trade-offs that have to be made between data-throughput and imaging resolution.. We developed a platform for microfluidics-assisted cell screening (‘MACS’)that overcomes this trade-off by enabling high-throughput and automated single-cell microscopy for a wide range of types and sizes of cells. Since cells can be rapidly sampled directly from a suspension culture, MACS bypasses the need for sample preparation and chemical fixation and therefore allows measurements without perturbing the native cell physiology. The setup can also be integrated with complex growth chambers, and can be used to enrich or sort the imaged cells. Furthermore, MACS facilitates visualization of individual cytoplasmic proteins in Escherichia coli, allowing low-abundance proteins to be counted using standard total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy. Finally, MACS can be used to impart mechanical pressure for assessing structural integrity of individual cells and their response to mechanical perturbations, or to make cells take up chemicals that otherwise would not pass through the membrane. This protocol describes the assembly of electronic control circuitry, the construction of liquid handling components, and the creation of silicon masters used to cast the microfluidics chip (4-7 d). We describe in detail how to properly cast, cure and bond the two layers of the MACS microfluidics chip (1-4 d). The operation of MACS is described and automation software is provided to integrate MACS control with image acquisition. Finally, we provide instructions for extending MACS using an external growth chamber (1 d) and how to sort rare cells of interest.

Varying reproduction strategies are an important trait that tree species need in order both to survive and to spread. Black locust is able to reproduce via seeds, stump shoots, and root suckers. However, little research has been conducted on the reproduction and spreading of black locust in short rotation coppices. This research study focused on seed germination, stump shoot resprout, and spreading by root suckering of black locust in ten short rotation coppices in Germany. Seed experiments and sample plots were analyzed for the study. Spreading was detected and measured with unmanned aerial system (UAS)-based images and classification technology&mdash, object-based image analysis (OBIA). Additionally, the classification of single UAS images was tested by applying a convolutional neural network (CNN), a deep learning model. The analyses showed that seed germination increases with increasing warm-cold variety and scarification. Moreover, it was found that the number of shoots per stump decreases as shoot age increases. Furthermore, spreading increases with greater light availability and decreasing tillage. The OBIA and CNN image analysis technologies achieved 97% and 99.5% accuracy for black locust classification in UAS images. All in all, the three reproduction strategies of black locust in short rotation coppices differ with regards to initialization, intensity, and growth performance, but all play a role in the survival and spreading of black locust.

The use of fluorescent and luminescent proteins in visualizing proteins has become a powerful tool in understanding molecular and cellular processes within living organisms. This success has resulted in an ever-increasing demand for new and more versatile protein-labeling tools that permit light-based detection of proteins within living cells. In this report, we present data supporting the use of the self-labeling HaloTag protein as a light-emitting reporter for protein fusions within the model prokaryote Escherichia coli . We show that functional protein fusions of the HaloTag can be detected both in vivo and in vitro when expressed within the cytoplasmic or periplasmic compartments of E. coli . The capacity to visually detect proteins localized in various prokaryotic compartments expands today's molecular biologist toolbox and paves the path to new applications. IMPORTANCE Visualizing proteins microscopically within living cells is important for understanding both the biology of cells and the role of proteins within living cells. Currently, the most common tool is green fluorescent protein (GFP). However, fluorescent proteins such as GFP have many limitations; therefore, the field of molecular biology is always in need of new tools to visualize proteins. In this paper, we demonstrate, for the first time, the use of HaloTag to visualize proteins in two different compartments within the model prokaryote Escherichia coli . The use of HaloTag as an additional tool to visualize proteins within prokaryotes increases our capacity to ask about and understand the role of proteins within living cells.

In Parkinson's disease (PD), α-synuclein (αS) pathologically impacts the brain, a highly lipid-rich organ. We investigated how alterations in αS or lipid/fatty acid homeostasis affect each other. Lipidomic profiling of human αS-expressing yeast revealed increases in oleic acid (OA, 18:1), diglycerides, and triglycerides. These findings were recapitulated in rodent and human neuronal models of αS dyshomeostasis (overexpression; patient-derived triplication or E46K mutation; E46K mice). Preventing lipid droplet formation or augmenting OA increased αS yeast toxicity; suppressing the OA-generating enzyme stearoyl-CoA-desaturase (SCD) was protective. Genetic or pharmacological SCD inhibition ameliorated toxicity in αS-overexpressing rat neurons. In a C. elegans model, SCD knockout prevented αS-induced dopaminergic degeneration. Conversely, we observed detrimental effects of OA on αS homeostasis: in human neural cells, excess OA caused αS inclusion formation, which was reversed by SCD inhibition. Thus, monounsaturated fatty acid metabolism is pivotal for αS-induced neurotoxicity, and inhibiting SCD represents a novel PD therapeutic approach. Keywords: Parkinson’s disease; synucleinopathy; alpha-synuclein; stearoyl-CoA-desaturase; unsaturated fatty acid; oleic acid; lipid droplets; diglyceride; triglyceride; tetramer; inclusions

PERC (Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell) technology has been established as a new standard in silicon PV cell manufacturing whereby the deposition of the aluminum oxide (AlOx)/silicon nitride (SiNx) rear-side passivation stack is mainly performed by inline PECVD equipment. Simultaneously the industrial price pressure for cell and module manufactures increase by lower module prices. Thus further reductions of production costs per watt peak (Wp) are required. For this reason manufacturing equipment with higher throughput as well as a lower OPEX (operational expenditure) combined with high tool uptime and yield keeps being mandatory. PV tool suppliers are focused on developing new tool generations to meet those requirements by also supporting new cell technology improvements at once. Beside wet chemistry, diffusion and metallization tools especially new high quality and high-throughput passivation concepts for enhanced PERC (PERC+ [4]) cells are necessary. This paper shows results on Meyer Burgers new PECVD passivation equipment for enhanced PERC}+ cells including technologies like selective emitter and emitter oxidation. Those new passivation concepts can be applied for only rear side (MAiA ® 6.1) and even both sides (FABiA ® 4.1) of a PERC+ cell with throughputs up to 6000W/h and excellent deposition uniformity and quality.

Passivated contacts are an increasingly popular option for achieving higher efficiencies in silicon wafer solar cells. In this study, we investigate passivated contacts deposited by inline PECVDto enable easy transfer of this technology to large-scale production. Two types of interfacial oxides fabricatedin-situ by proprietary processes are compared when capped by an electron-selective PECVDn+-doped polycrystalline Si (n+:poly-Si). Passivated contacts with one type of oxide layers perform better achieving a best cell efficiency of 21.6% when used as the rear contact in SERIS’ large-area bifacialn-type monoPolyTM solar cells.

Mit dem Anbau von Agrarholz lassen sich vielfaltige Ziele erreichen. Aus wirtschaftlicher Sicht ist v. a. die Produktion von Holz als Rohstoff fur die energetische Verwertung oder eine stoffliche Nutzung relevant. Daneben konnen weitere Ziele von Bedeutung sein (Kap. 3). Hierzu gehoren beispielsweise die Sicherung der Bodenfruchtbarkeit oder auch okologische und landschaftsasthetische Aspekte, die sich oftmals nur sekundar auf die betriebswirtschaftlichen Ergebnisse auswirken.

State-of-the-art surface passivation results are obtained on undiffused p-type commercial-grade Czochralski Si wafers with effective surface recombination velocity S eff values of ∼8 cm/s and implied open-circuit voltage iV oc values of up to 715 mV with an industrially fired dielectric stack of silicon oxide and silicon nitride (SiO ${}_x$ /SiN ${}_x$ ) deposited in an industrial inline plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition reactor. We are able to controllably vary the total positive charge density Q total in the stack by more than one order of magnitude (1011–10 12 cm−2) with no impact on midgap interface state density D it,midgap (5 × 1011 eV−1·cm−2) by altering the deposition temperature of the SiO ${}_x$ layer in the stack. We show experimentally that, for inversion conditions, S eff scales with the inverse square of the charge density $1/Q_{{\rm total}}^2$ , which is in good agreement with theory. Based on the measured injection-level–dependent minority carrier lifetimes and the total positive charge densities, it is shown that films with higher positive charge density have higher 1-sun V oc and fill factor ( FF ) potential. Large-area alloyed aluminum local back surface field solar cells confirmed this by showing higher conversion efficiency by 0.17% absolute due to improved cell V oc and FF of the solar cells featuring a SiO ${}_x$ /SiN ${}_x$ stack with a higher Q total.

Tree flowers are important for flower–insect relationships, seeds, fruits, and honey production. Flowers are difficult to analyze, particularly in complex ecosystems such as forests. However, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) enable detailed analyses with high spatial resolution, and avoid destruction of sensitive ecosystems. In this study, we hypothesize that UAVs can be used to estimate the number of existing flowers, the quantity of nectar, and habitat potential for honeybees (Apis mellifera). To test this idea, in 2017 we combined UAV image analysis with manual counting and weighing of the flowers of eight-year-old black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) trees to calculate the number of flowers, their surface area, and their volume. Estimates of flower surface area ranged from 2.97 to 0.03% as the flying altitude above the crowns increased from 2.6 m to 92.6 m. Second, for the horizontal analysis, a 133 m2 flower area at a one-hectare black locust plantation was monitored in 2017 by a UAV. Flower numbers ranged from 1913 to 15,559 per tree with an average surface area of 1.92 cm2 and average volume of 5.96 cm3. The UAV monitored 11% of the total surface and 3% of the total volume. Consequently, at the one-hectare black locust study area we estimate 5.3 million flowers (69 kg honey), which is sufficient for one bee hive to survive for one year.

Black locust is a drought-resistant tree species with high biomass productivity during juvenility; it is able to thrive on wastelands, such as former brown coal fields and dry agricultural areas. However, research conducted on this species in such areas is limited. This paper aims to provide a basis for predicting tree woody biomass for black locust based on tree, competition, and site variables at 14 sites in northeast Germany that were previously utilized for mining or agriculture. The study areas, which are located in an area covering 320 km × 280 km, are characterized by a variety of climatic and soil conditions. Influential variables, including tree parameters, competition, and climatic parameters were considered. Allometric biomass models were employed. The findings show that the most important parameters are tree and competition variables. Different former land utilizations, such as mining or agriculture, as well as growth by cores or stumps, significantly influenced aboveground woody biomass production. The new biomass models developed as part of this study can be applied to calculate woody biomass production and carbon sequestration of Robinia pseudoacacia L. in short rotation coppices in previous mining and agricultural areas.

Black locust is a drought-resistant tree species with high biomass productivity during juvenility; it is able to thrive on wastelands, such as former brown coal fields and dry agricultural areas. However, research conducted on this species in such areas is limited. This paper aims to provide a basis for predicting tree woody biomass for black locust based on tree, competition, and site variables at 14 sites in northeast Germany that were previously utilized for mining or agriculture. The study areas, which are located in an area covering 320 km × 280 km, are characterized by a variety of climatic and soil conditions. Influential variables, including tree parameters, competition, and climatic parameters were considered. Allometric biomass models were employed. The findings show that the most important parameters are tree and competition variables. Different former land utilizations, such as mining or agriculture, as well as growth by cores or stumps, significantly influenced aboveground woody biomass production. The new biomass models developed as part of this study can be applied to calculate woody biomass production and carbon sequestration of Robinia pseudoacacia L. in short rotation coppices in previous mining and agricultural areas.

Okumus, Burak et al., Many key regulatory proteins in bacteria are present in too low numbers to be detected with conventional methods, which poses a particular challenge for single-cell analyses because such proteins can contribute greatly to phenotypic heterogeneity. Here we develop a microfluidics-based platform that enables single-molecule counting of low-abundance proteins by mechanically slowing-down their diffusion within the cytoplasm of live Escherichia coli (E. coli) cells. Our technique also allows for automated microscopy at high throughput with minimal perturbation to native physiology, as well as viable enrichment/retrieval. We illustrate the method by analysing the control of the master regulator of the E. coli stress response, RpoS, by its adapter protein, SprE (RssB). Quantification of SprE numbers shows that though SprE is necessary for RpoS degradation, it is expressed at levels as low as 3-4 molecules per average cell cycle, and fluctuations in SprE are approximately Poisson distributed during exponential phase with no sign of bursting., Johan Paulsson acknowledges support from NIH grants GM081563 and GM09578, Burak Okumus from Novartis Fellowship in Systems Biology, Meriem El Karoui from Marie-Curie Fellowship (PIOF-GA-2009-254082-DRIBAC), and Celeste N. Peterson from the Research Corporation for Scientific Advancement Cottrell College Science Award.

Many key regulatory proteins in bacteria are present in too low numbers to be detected with conventional methods, which poses a particular challenge for single-cell analyses because such proteins can contribute greatly to phenotypic heterogeneity. Here we develop a microfluidics-based platform that enables single-molecule counting of low-abundance proteins by mechanically slowing-down their diffusion within the cytoplasm of live Escherichia coli (E. coli) cells. Our technique also allows for automated microscopy at high throughput with minimal perturbation to native physiology, as well as viable enrichment/retrieval. We illustrate the method by analysing the control of the master regulator of the E. coli stress response, RpoS, by its adapter protein, SprE (RssB). Quantification of SprE numbers shows that though SprE is necessary for RpoS degradation, it is expressed at levels as low as 3-4 molecules per average cell cycle, and fluctuations in SprE are approximately Poisson distributed during exponential phase with no sign of bursting.

Gene tagging with fluorescent proteins is commonly applied to investigate the localization and dynamics of proteins in their cellular environment. Ideally, a fluorescent tag is genetically inserted at the endogenous locus at the N- or C- terminus of the gene of interest without disrupting regulatory sequences including the 5’ and 3’ untranslated region (UTR) and without introducing any extraneous unwanted “scar” sequences, which may create unpredictable transcriptional or translational effects. We present a reliable, low-cost, and highly efficient method for the construction of such scarless C-terminal and N-terminal fusions with fluorescent proteins in yeast. The method relies on sequential positive and negative selection and uses an integration cassette with long flanking regions, which is assembled by two-step PCR, to increase the homologous recombination frequency. The method also enables scarless tagging of essential genes with no need for a complementing plasmid. To further ease high-throughput strain construction, we have computationally automated design of the primers, applied the primer design code to all open reading frames (ORFs) of the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) and the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe (S. pombe), and provide here the computed sequences. To illustrate the scarless N- and C-terminal gene tagging methods in S. cerevisiae, we tagged various genes including the E3 ubiquitin ligase RSP5, the proteasome subunit PRE1, and the eleven Rab GTPases with yeast codon-optimized mNeonGreen or mCherry; several of these represent essential genes. We also implemented the scarless C-terminal gene tagging method in the distantly related organism S. pombe using kanMX6 and HSV1tk as positive and negative selection markers, respectively, as well as ura4. The scarless gene tagging methods presented here are widely applicable to visualize and investigate the functional roles of proteins in living cells., United States. National Institutes of Health (NS087557), American Parkinson Disease Association, Inc.

Aggregates of human islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) in the pancreas of patients with type-2 diabetes (T2D) are thought to contribute to β-cell dysfunction and death. To understand how IAPP harms cells and how this might be overcome, we created a yeast model of IAPP toxicity. Ste24, an evolutionarily conserved protease that was recently reported to degrade peptides stuck within the translocon between the cytoplasm and the endoplasmic reticulum, was the strongest suppressor of IAPP toxicity. By testing variants of the human homolog, ZMPSTE24, with varying activity levels, the rescue of IAPP toxicity proved to be directly proportional to the declogging efficiency. Clinically relevant ZMPSTE24 variants identified in the largest database of exomes sequences derived from T2D patients were characterized using the yeast model, revealing 14 partial loss-of-function variants, which were enriched among diabetes patients over 2-fold. Thus, clogging of the translocon by IAPP oligomers may contribute to β-cell failure.

The content of soil organic matter (SOM) can be considered as an important factor for evaluating soil fertility, crop yields, and environmental effects. Sensitive measurements for the assessment of quantitative changes in SOM shortly after the conversion of the management practice would be helpful to understand the SOM-transformation cycle in more detail. Changes in SOM are reflected in modifications of total organic-carbon (TOC) and total organic-nitrogen (TON) contents. They are initially detectable in the readily decomposable fraction. We used hot water-extractable carbon (HWC) and nitrogen (HWN) as measurement of labile pools of SOM and aimed to quantify changes in contents of these C and N fractions in a sandy soil already few years after changing management strategy. In this context, we examined the impact of the conversion of a succession fallow (F) to organic (O) and intensive (I) agriculture on TOC, total N (TN), HWC, and HWN. The conversion of succession fallow to cultivated land resulted in a significant decrease of TOC, TN, and HWC at 0-10 cm soil depth. On average, TOC decreased approx. 0.70 g C kg⁻¹ (approx. 9% of initial TOC), TN decreased approx. 0.13 g N kg⁻¹ (approx. 17% of initial TN), and HWC decreased approx. 0.05 g C kg⁻¹ (approx. 12% of initial HWC) within 3 years. Relatively rapid changes in TOC and TN contents indicated comparatively high proportions of decomposable C and N. These were reflected in comparable high HWC (ranging from 0.37 to 0.59 g C kg⁻¹ at 0-30 cm soil depth) and HWN (ranging from 0.04 to 0.10 g N kg⁻¹ at 0-30 cm) contents. These high contents as well as the high HWC : TOC and organic hot water-extractable N (HWNorg) : TN ratios (both between 5% and 7%) implied that the soil investigated has a high ability to provide short-term available organic C and N compounds. Long-lasting applications of high quantities of organic fertilizer in the past and high quantities of rhizodepositions were assumed as reasons for the high capability of soil to provide short-term to medium-term available C and N. Changes in the HWN content due to the fertilization or crop rotation were mainly based on changes in its inorganic part. This ranged between 10% and 30% of HWN. By discriminant function analysis, it could be shown that the HWN represents a suitably sensitive measurement for the determination of management-specific impacts in terms of the N, but also of the C cycle. In combination with other C and particularly with other N parameters, the HWN allowed a statistically significant separation of comparable sites varying in management practice already 2 years after the conversion of the management system.

The objective of this study is to evaluate different agricultural land-use practices in terms of N leaching and to give recommendations for a sustainable agriculture on sandy soils in Middle Germany. Soil mineral N (N min ) and leachate N were quantified at a sandy soil in N Saxony during 3 years. Two treatments were applied: intensive (I)―using inorganic and organic fertilizer and pesticides, and organic (O)―exclusively using organic fertilizer, legume-based crop rotation, and no pesticides. Split application of mineral fertilizers did not result in substantial N losses at treatment I. Legumes induced a considerable increase of soil mineral N and particularly of leachate mineral N (N min_perc ) at treatment O. High N min_perc concentrations (up to 78 mg N L ―1 ) were observed during as well as after the cultivation of legumes. These high N min_perc concentrations are the reason why clearly higher N min_perc losses were determined at treatment O (62 kg N ha ―1 y ―1 ) compared to treatment I (23 kg N ha ―1 y ―1 ). At both treatments, the quantity of N losses was strongly affected by the precipitation rates. Concentrations and losses of dissolved organic N (DON perc ) were assessed as above average at both treatments. The results suggest that the DON perc concentration is influenced by precipitation, soil coverage, and organic fertilizers. Higher values were determined in the percolation water of treatment O. The average annual DON perc losses amounted to 15 kg N ha ―1 at I and to 32 kg N ha ―1 at O. The average monthly percentage of DON perc losses on the loss of the dissolved total N of percolation water (DTN perc ) ranged between

YggX is a highly conserved protein found only in eubacteria and is proposed to be involved in the bacterial response to oxidative stress. Here we report the solution structure of YggX from Escherichia coli determined by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The structure of YggX displays a fold consisting of two N-terminal antiparallel beta-sheets and three alpha-helices, which shares significant structural similarity to the crystal structure of a hypothetical protein PA5148 from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Previous studies propose YggX as an iron binding protein that is involved in cellular iron trafficking. Our data indicate that the protein alone does not bind iron in vitro, suggesting other cofactors or different conditions may be necessary for metal binding.

Short-rotation plantations are harvested in cycles of three to twenty years, depending on the production aim. In contrast to the establishment and recultivation costs, the costs for harvesting and processing of the wood occur regularly. The harvesting technology should be chosen with respect to the desired outcome – logs or chips. This is crucial for the process costs as well as the possible performance. A combination of forestry harvesters and forwarders is recommended when logs will be harvested. If the wood will be used energetically, an agricultural combined harvester and chipper fitted with suitable harvesting aggregates is the best technology with respect to productivity and performance, as well as for economic reasons. For drying the wood chips, an air ventilation process based on the self-heating of freshly harvested wood chips is an effective method for drying the wood without external energy input. With this method, it is possible to reduce the water content to 30% within three months.

Initial pedogenesis of reclaimed saline marsh soils was studied along a chronosequence of reclaimed land at Hangzhou Bay, Zhejiang Province, P.R. China. The objective was to compare soil development of these soils with processes known for natural saline marsh soil development and to evaluate the presented form of artificial land recovery against the background of increasing population densities in China. Electrical conductivity (water) and exchangeable sodium percentage decreased rapidly after reclamation started. The decrease in pH and carbonate content suggest an incipient decalcification. Soil organic carbon decreased in the first 30 cm within 20 years, caused by mineralization of the organic sea sediments. After this process an accumulation of soil organic carbon due to organic matter input as a result of farming was observed. At all sites total contents of calcium, magnesium and potassium were classified as elevated to high and decreased slightly within 31 years after reclamation and commencement of agricultural use. Only total phosphorus increased after construction of embankments, attributed to the application of fertilizer phosphorus. Available nutrient contents developed differently but none showed significant trends. Calcium slightly decreased as an effect of reclamation. Processes of pedogenesis were comparable to those known for natural marshes, but had an initial character. The reclamation of land in the presented manner is considered important to support high and growing population densities in China. However, agricultural management and fertilizer application has to be carefully evaluated.

Mild extractions were used as indicators of easily decomposable organic matter (OM). However, the chemical composition of extracted OM often remained unclear. Therefore, the composition of cold and hot water–extractable OM was investigated in the O horizons (Oi, Oe, Oa) of a 170 y old beech stand (Fagus sylvatica) in the Ore Mtns., SE Germany. To simulate litter decomposition, the O horizon samples were incubated for 1 week under defined conditions. Cold- and hot-water extracts were analyzed and chemically characterized by pyrolysis–field ionization mass spectrometry (Py-FIMS). The C and N concentrations were always lower in the cold-(C: 2.69 to 3.95 g kg–1; N: 0.14 to 0.29 g kg–1) than in the hot-water extracts (C: 13.77 to 15.51 g kg–1; N: 0.34 to 0.83 g kg–1). The C : N ratios of both extracts increased with increasing depth. Incubation increased the concentrations of C and N in all water extracts, while C : N ratios of extracts decreased. The molecular-chemical composition of cold and hot water–extracted OM revealed distinct differences. Generally, cold water–extracted OM was thermally more stable than hot water–extracted OM. The mass spectra of the hot water–extracted organic matter revealed more intensive signals of carbohydrates, phenols, and lignin monomers. Additionally, the n-C28 fatty acid and the n-C38–to–n-C52 alkyl monoesters clearly distinguished the hot- from the cold-water extract. A principle-component analysis visualized (1) alterations in the molecular-chemical composition of cold- and hot-water extracts due to previous incubation of the solid O horizon samples and (2) a decomposition from the Oi to the Oh horizon. This provides evidence that the macromorphological litter decomposition was reflected by the chemical composition of water extracts, and that Py-FIMS is well-suited to explain at the molecular level why OM decomposability is correlated with water-extracted C.

The amounts of K2SO4 extractable total N (Nt(K2SO4)), organic N (Norg(K2SO4)), and inorganic N (NH4 + – N(K2SO4), NO3 − – N(K2SO4)) were measured before and after CHCl3 of previously non fumigated soils at seven days intervals over a period of nine weeks. Soil samples were taken in plastic tubes down to a soil depth of 30 cm from a Scots pine forest soil (Eutric Cambisol) in NE-Saxony, Germany, in spring 2002 and incubated at 15°C and 75% of relative humidity. Each week, microbial N was measured in the samples of following soil depths: organic layer (Oea), 0 – 5 cm, 5 – 15 cm and 15 – 30 cm). During the experiment, microbial N was slightly reduced in the organic layer while in the mineral soil no clear trend was detected. In all soil depths and at any time of the investigation, the Nt(K2SO4) content as well as the Norg(K2SO4)/Nt(K2SO4) ratio were significantly higher (p ⩽ 0.001; p ⩽ 0.01) after the chloroform-fumigation than before. At any time of the investigation, the NH4 + – N(K2SO4) content i...

Total, mobile, and easily available C and N fractions, microbial biomass, and enzyme activities in a sandy soil under pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) stands were investigated in a field study near Riesa, NE Germany. Samples of the organic layers (Oi and Oe-Oa) and the mineral soil (0–5, 5–10, 10–20, and 10–30 cm) were taken in fall 1999 and analyzed for their contents of organic C and total N, hot-water-extractable organic C and N (HWC and HWN), KCl-extractable organic C and N (Corg(KCl) and Norg(KCl)), NH-N and NO-N, microbial-biomass C and N, and activities of β-glucosidase and L-asparaginase. With exception of the HWC, all investigated C and N pools showed a clear response to tilling, which was most pronounced in the Oi horizon. Compared to soils under pine, those under black locust had higher contents of medium- and short-term available C (HWC, Corg(KCl)) and N (HWN, Norg(KCl)), mineral N (NH-N, NO-N), microbial-biomass C and N, and enzyme activities in the uppermost horizons of the soil. The strong depth gradient found for all studied parameters was most pronounced in soils under black locust. Microbial-biomass C and N and enzyme activities were closely related to the amounts of readily mineralizable organic C (HWC and Corg(KCl)). However, the presented results implicate a faster C and N turnover in the top-soil layers under black locust caused by higher N-input rates by symbiotic N2 fixation. Mittel- und kurzfristig verfugbare organische Substanz, mikrobielle Biomasse und Enzymaktivitaten unter Pinus sylvestris L. und Robinia pseudoacacia L. in einem Sandboden in Nordostsachsen, Deutschland In einer bei Riesa, Nordostdeutschland, durchgefuhrten Feldstudie wurden Gesamtgehalte an und leicht mobilisierbare Fraktionen von C und N und mikrobieller Biomasse sowie Aktivitaten von Enzymen des C- und N-Kreislaufes unter Kiefer (Pinus sylvestris L.) und Robinie (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) in einem Sandboden bestimmt. Die Proben der organischen Auflagen (L und Ofh) und des Mineralbodens (0–5, 5–10, 10–20 und 10–30 cm) wurden im Herbst 1999 entnommen und ihre Gehalte an organischem C und Gesamt-N, heiswasserextrahierbarem organischem C und N (HWC und HWN), KCl-extrahierbarem organischem C und N (Corg(KCl) und Norg(KCl)), NH-N und NO-N und mikrobiellem Biomasse-C und -N sowie Aktivitaten von β-Glucosidase und L-Asparaginase untersucht. Mit Ausnahme des HWC zeigten alle untersuchten C- und N-Fraktionen eine klare Abhangigkeit von der Bestockung, welche in der L-Lage am deutlichsten sichtbar wurde. Im Vergleich zur Kiefer wurden in den obersten Horizonten unter Robinie die hochsten Gehalte an mittel und leicht mobilisierbarem C (HWC, Corg(KCl)) und N (HWN, Norg(KCl)), mineralischem N (NH-N, NO-N), mikrobiell gebundenem C und N sowie die hochsten Enzymaktivitaten festgestellt. Vergleichsweise hohe Cmic:Corg-Verhaltnisse in den Auflagen und im Mineralboden unter Robinie deuten auf einen intensiveren C- und N-Umsatz hin als unter Kiefer. Der fur alle Untersuchungsgrosen nachgewiesene Tiefengradient war im Boden unter Robinie am deutlichsten ausgepragt. Mikrobiell gebundener C und N und β-Glucosidase- und L-Asparaginase-Aktivitat korrelierten signifikant mit den Gehalten des leicht mineralisierbaren organischen C (HWC und Corg(KCl)). Die dargestellten Ergebnisse lassen auf einen schnelleren C- und N-Umsatz im Oberboden unter Robinie schliesen, was in einem hoheren N-Eintrag durch symbiotische N2-Fixierung im Boden unter Robinie begrundet liegt.

The dynamic of different soil C and N fractions in a Cambisol under succession fallow was investigated from June 1996 until May 2001. Mineral soil samples (0 – 10 and 10 – 30 cm) were analyzed for their concentrations of organic C (Corg), total N (Nt), hot water extractable C and N (HWC and HWN), and KCl extractable C and N (Corg(KCl), Norg(KCl), NH4+-N, NO3–-N). The values of all C and N fractions revealed a distinct depth gradient. While the concentrations of Corg increased after set aside significantly from 7.7 to 8.9 g kg–1 at 0 – 10 cm, those at 10 – 30 cm depth decreased from 7.2 to 6.1 g kg–1. Nt remained rather constant throughout the whole observation period. The HWC concentrations increased from 0.33 to 0.49 g kg–1, while HWN decreased slightly at 0 – 10 cm with time. In contrast, both HWC and HWN increased at 10 – 30 cm soil depth. HWC showed close significant correlations to Corg, and HWN to Nt as well as to NH4+-N and NO3–-N, respectively. In comparison to hot water-extractable C and N, Corg(KCl) and Norg(KCl) accounted only about one tenth of those and showed a decreasing trend with time of succession. C : N ratio of the KCl fraction was in the same order of magnitude as the HWC : HWN ratio, except the last phase of the experiment where hot water extract values increased above 10. Dynamik verschiedener C- und N-Fraktionen in einer Braunerde unter funfjahriger Sukzessionsbrache in Sachsen (Deutschland) In einer Braunerde unter Sukzessionsbrache wurde die Dynamik unterschiedlicher C- und N-Fraktionen von Juni 1996 bis Mai 2001 untersucht. Die Mineralbodenproben (0 – 10 und 10 – 30 cm) wurden bezuglich ihres Gehaltes an organischem Gesamt-C (Corg), Gesamt-N (Nt), heiswasserextrahierbarem C und N (HWC und HWN) und KCl-extrahierbarem C und N (Corg(KCl) und Norg(KCl), NH4+-N, NO3–-N) analysiert. Bei allen untersuchten C- und N-Fraktionen zeichnete sich ein deutlicher Tiefengradient ab. Wahrend die Corg-Gehalte in 0 – 10 cm mit fortschreitender Sukzessionszeit signifikant von 7, 7 auf 8, 9 g kg–1 zunahmen, kam es in 10 – 30 cm zu einer Abnahme von 7, 2 auf 6, 1 g kg–1. Mit Ausnahme einiger saisonaler Schwankungen anderte sich der Nt-Gehalt wahrend der Untersuchungszeit nicht. In 0 – 10 cm Tiefe nahmen die Gehalte an HWC von 0, 33 auf 0, 49 g kg–1 zu, wahrend der HWN leicht abnahm. Im Gegensatz dazu stieg in 10 – 30 cm Bodentiefe sowohl der HWC als auch der HWN an. HWC zeigte signifikant positive Korrelationen zum Corg, und HWN war mit Nt als auch NH4+-N und NO3–-N eng korreliert. Die Gehalte an Corg(KCl) und Norg(KCl) nahmen mit zunehmender Zeit unter Brache deutlich ab; deren Niveau betrug im Vergleich zu den korrespondierenden C- und N-Werten des Heiswasserextrakts etwa 10 %. Die C:N-Verhaltnisse der KCl-Extrakte lagen im Vergleich zu HWC : HWN in einer vergleichbaren Grosenordnung mit Ausnahme der letzten beiden Untersuchungsjahre, in denen die Werte des Heiswasserextraktes deutlich auf Werte uber 10 zunahmen.

We introduce a nonintrusive method exploiting single-cell variability after cell division to validate protein localization. We found that Clp proteases, widely reported to form biologically relevant foci, were uniformly distributed in Escherichia coli cells, and that many commonly used fluorescent proteins caused severe mislocalization when fused to homo-oligomers. Retagging five other reportedly foci-forming proteins with the most monomeric fluorescent protein tested suggests that the foci were caused by the fluorescent tags.

The response of microbial biomass carbon (Cmic), nitrogen (Nmic), basal respiration, and the metabolic quotient to 3 years of a natural succession fallow were studied in a field experiment on sandy soil in Northeast Saxony/Germany from 1996 to 1998. Soil samples were taken from Eutric Cambisol and Mollic Cambisol every six weeks during the vegetation period at soil depths of 0—10 and 10—30 cm. The Cmic content in the topsoils increased with time of succession in both soil types. This trend was more distinct in the Mollic Cambisol (70.7 μg g—1 in June 1996 to 270.9 μg g—1 in October 1998 at 0—10 cm) than in the Eutric Cambisol (69.7 μg g—1 in June 1996 to 175.0 μg g—1 in October 1998 at 0—10 cm). By contrast, the Nmic content slightly decreased in the Eutric Cambisol from 18.9 μg g—1 to 17.7 μg g—1 during the same time period. In the Mollic Cambisol, the Nmic increased from 18.8 μg g—1 in spring 1996 to 35.5 μg g—1 in fall 1998, however to a lower extent than the Cmic. Subsequently, the (C:N)mic ratio increased from 4.3 to 5.8 at soil depth of 0—10 cm and from 3.5 to 6.5 at 10—30 cm during the 3-year-study at the Eutric Cambisol. In the Mollic Cambisol, the enhancement of (C:N)mic ratio was more pronounced (i.e. from 4.3 to 6.7 at 0—10 cm and from 3.5 to 7.2 at 10—30 cm). Most likely this results from a shift in microbial populations towards a dominance of soil fungi. The already low basal respiration of, on average, 0.26 mg CO2 g—1 (24h)—1 (0—10 cm) in June 1996 decreased with time of succession fallow to 0.15 and 0.22 mg CO2 g—1 (24h)—1 in October 1998 in the Eutric and the Mollic Cambisol, respectively. Thus, the metabolic quotient as an indicator for the efficiency of organic matter turnover in soil was very low in both soils. During the summer months, the metabolic quotients reached minimum levels of ≤ 0.1 μg CO2 C (g Cmic)—1 h—1, probably because of low soil moisture contents. Correlation analyses revealed close relationships between Nmic and total N, Nmic and water content, and Nmic and pH values. These relationships became even more pronounced with the time period of natural succession. For the samples from fall 1998, highly significant correlations were determined between Nmic and total N (coefficients were rs = 0.91***), Nmic and water content (rs = 0.91***), and Nmic and pH value (rs = 0.76***). The values for all biological parameters studied were larger in the Mollic than in the Eutric Cambisol. This indicates higher turnover rates of different C and N fractions in the Mollic Cambisol. In general, set aside of formerly agricultural managed sandy soils resulted in greater Cmic : Nmic ratios and thus, in a change in the microbiological community structure as well as in reduced C and N turnover rates (i.e. low metabolic quotient) under the climatic conditions of the East German lowlands. Dynamik der mikrobiellen Biomasse auf einem Sandbraunerde-Standort in Nordostsachsen unter dreijahriger Sukzessionsbrache Die Reaktion des mikrobiell gebundenen Kohlenstoffes (Cmic) und Stickstoffes (Nmic), der Basalatmung und des metabolischen Quotienten auf eine 3-jahrige Sukzessionsbrache wurde in einem Feldexperiment auf Norm-Braunerde und Humusbraunerde in Nordostsachsen zwischen 1996 und 1998 erfasst. Die Bodenproben wurden in den Tiefenstufen 0—10 und 10—30 cm wahrend der Vegetationsperiode in einem sechswochigem Rhythmus genommen. Im Oberboden nahmen die Cmic-Gehalte mit zunehmender Brachedauer in beiden Bodentypen zu. Dieser Trend wurde in der Humusbraunerde (70,7 μg g—1 im Juni 1996 bis 270,9 μg g—1 im Oktober 1998 in 0—10 cm) deutlicher als in der Braunerde (69,7 μg g—1 im Juni 1996 bis 175,0 μg g—1 im Oktober 1998 in 0—10 cm). Im Gegensatz dazu nahmen die Nmic-Gehalte in der Norm-Braunerde von 18,9 μg g—1 auf 17,7 μg g—1 in derselben Zeit ab. In der Humusbraunerde nahm der Nmic von 18,8 μg g—1 im Fruhjahr 1996 auf 35,5 μg g—1 im Herbst 1998 zu, wenngleich in einem wesentlich geringeren Mas als der Cmic. Die Folge war eine Zunahme des (C : N)mic-Verhaltnisses in der Norm-Braunerde von 4,3 auf 5,8 in 0—10 cm und von 3,5 auf 6,5 in 10—30 cm. In der Humusbraunerde wurde die Aufweitung des (C : N)mic-Verhaltnisses noch deutlicher (4,3—6,7 in 0—10 cm und 3,5—7,2 in 10—30 cm). Dieses Ergebnis ist moglicherweise ein Resultat der Artenverschiebung der mikrobiellen Organismengemeinschaft von Bakterien- zu Pilzpopulationen. Die insgesamt sehr niedrige Basalatmung von ungefahr 0,26 mg CO2 g—1 (24h)—1 (0—10 cm) im Juni 1996 nahm mit zunehmender Brachedauer auf 0,15 mg CO2 g—1 (24h)—1 in der Braunerde bzw. 0,22 mg CO2 g—1 (24h)—1 in der Humusbraunerde im Oktober 1998 ab. So wurden auch sehr geringe metabolische Quotienten als Mas der Effizienz des Umsatzes der organischen Substanz im Boden festgestellt. Wahrend der Sommermonate wurden Werte von ≤ 0,1 μg CO2 C (g Cmic)—1 h—1 festgestellt, was mit dem geringen Wassergehalt der Boden zu begrunden ist. Die Korrelationsanalyse zeigte enge Beziehungen zwischen dem Nmic und Gesamt-N, Nmic und dem Wassergehalt sowie dem Nmic und dem pH-Wert im Boden. Diese Korrelationen wurden mit zunehmender Brachedauer zunehmend enger. So konnten im Herbst 1998 Korrelationskoeffizienten von rs = 0,91***, 0,91*** und 0,76*** fur die genannten Beziehungen festgestellt werden. In der Humusbraunerde wurden hohere Werte fur alle untersuchten mikrobiellen Parameter als in der Norm-Braunerde festgestellt. Zusammenfassend fuhrt die Brachlegung ehemals landwirtschaftlich genutzter Boden zu weiteren (C : N)mic-Verhaltnissen und somit auch zur Veranderung der mikrobiellen Organismengemeinschaft. Dies hat unter den klimatischen Bedingungen des Nordostdeutschen Trockenraumes einen geringeren C- und N-Umsatz zur Folge, sichtbar in den geringeren metabolischen Quotienten.

In the physiological form, the prion protein is a glycoprotein tethered to the cell surface via a C-terminal glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor, consisting of a largely alpha-helical globular C-terminal domain and an unstructured N-terminal portion. This unstructured part of the protein contains four successive octapeptide repeats, which were shown to bind up to four Cu(2+) ions in a cooperative manner. To mimic the location of the protein on the cell membrane and to analyze possible structuring effects of the lipid/water interface, the conformational preferences of a single octapeptide repeat and its tetrameric form, as well of the fragment 92-113, proposed as an additional copper binding site, were comparatively analyzed in aqueous and dodecylphosphocholine micellar solution as a membrane mimetic. While for the downstream fragment 92-113 no conformational effects were detectable in the presence of DPC micelles by CD and NMR, both the single octapeptide repeat and, in an even more pronounced manner, its tetrameric form are restricted into well-defined conformations. Because of the repetitive character of the rigid structural subdomain in the tetrarepeat molecule, the spatial arrangement of these identical motifs could not be resolved by NMR analysis. However, the polyvalent nature of the repetitive subunits leads to a remarkably enhanced interaction with the micelles, which is not detectably affected by copper complexation. These results strongly suggest interactions of the cellular form of PrP (PrP(c)) N-terminal tail with the cell membrane surface at least in the octapeptide repeat region with preorganization of these sequence portions for copper complexation. There are sufficient experimental facts known that support a physiological role of copper complexation by the octapeptide repeat region of PrP(c) such as a copper-buffering role of the PrP(c) protein on the extracellular surface.

Introns may affect gene expression by increasing the time required to transcribe the gene. One way for extended transcription times to affect the behavior of a gene expression program is through a negative feedback loop. Here, we show that a logically engineered negative feedback loop in animal cells produces expression pulses, which have a broad time distribution that increases with intron length. These results in combination with mathematical models provide insight into what may produce the intron-dependent pulse distributions. We conclude that the long production time required for large intron-containing genes is significant for the behavior of gene expression programs.

The ability to logically engineer novel cellular functions promises a deeper understanding of biological systems. Here we demonstrate the rational design of cellular memory in yeast that employs autoregulatory transcriptional positive feedback. We built a set of transcriptional activators and quantitatively characterized their effects on gene expression in living cells. Modeling in conjunction with the quantitative characterization of the activator-promoter pairs accurately predicts the behavior of the memory network. This study demonstrates the power of taking advantage of components with measured quantitative parameters to specify eukaryotic regulatory networks with desired properties.

Many coastal regions in China are confronted with pressing problems of scarce land resources and heavy population. Over the past 30 years, considerable parts of coastal tidelands have been enclosed and reclaimed for agricultural land uses. To assess, plan, and implement large-scale reclamation programs, up-to-date and reliable information concerning the nature, areal extent, and physical and chemical characteristics of coastal saline lands is essential. This paper reports a remote sensing approach to detecting coastal saline land uses in Shangyu City, China, by using multi-temporal Landsat images. First, with the aid of resolution-sharpened Landsat-7 ETM+ images and their enhanced linear features, a visual interpretation is applied to extract individual dikes. Based on time series images and local government records, a spatial zoning procedure is then used to define six sub-zones with different historical years of reclamation. It shows that a total of 15,668 ha of coastal saline lands were enclosed and reclaimed from 1969 to 1996. Second, a modified land-use classification system for the study area is prescribed, and both unsupervised and supervised classifiers are performed for land-use classifications of grouped sub-zones. Information obtained from the spatial zoning, Tasseled Cap transformation and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, is also utilized to facilitate the supervised classification process. Finally, a detailed land-use map is produced, with an overall classification accuracy of 77.8%. Results show that dominant agricultural land uses of sub-zones are changed with historical reclamation years, from saline lands with wildgrass (very recently reclaimed) to aqua-farm ponds, to cotton fields, and to paddy fields and orchards (very early reclaimed). This transform process is primarily affected by soil salinities, and according to a soil survey an electrical conductivity of saturation extract decreased from 7.3 ds/m in the saline land reclaimed in 1996 to below 2 ds/m in the land reclaimed before 1969. The study concludes that multi-temporal remotely sensed images are important and effective data sources for monitoring the rapid changes of coastal land uses.

Within different land-use systems such as agriculture, forestry, and fallow, the different morphology and physiology of the plants, together with their specific management, lead to a system-typical set of ecological conditions in the soil. The response of total, mobile, and easily available C and N fractions, microbial biomass, and enzyme activities involved in C and N cycling to different soil management was investigated in a sandy soil at a field study at Riesa, Northeastern Germany. The management systems included agricultural management (AM), succession fallow (SF), and forest management (FM). Samples of the mineral soil (0—5, 5—10, and 10—30 cm) were taken in spring 1999 and analyzed for their contents on organic C, total N, NH4+-N and NO3—-N, KCl-extractable organic C and N fractions (Corg(KCl) and Norg(KCl)), microbial biomass C and N, and activities of β-glucosidase and L-asparaginase. With the exception of Norg(KCl), all investigated C and N pools showed a clear relationship to the land-use system that was most pronounced in the 0—5 cm profile increment. SF resulted in greater contents of readily available C (Corg(KCl)), NH4+-N, microbial biomass C and N, and enzyme activities in the uppermost 5 cm of the soil compared to all other systems studied. These differences were significant at P ≤ 0.05 to P ≤ 0.001. Comparably high Cmic:Corg ratios of 2.4 to 3.9 % in the SF plot imply a faster C and N turnover than in AM and FM plots. Forest management led to 1.5- to 2-fold larger organic C contents compared to SF and AM plots, respectively. High organic C contents were coupled with low microbial biomass C (78 μg g—1) and N contents (10.7 μg g—1), extremely low Cmic : Corg ratios (0.2—0.6 %) and low β-glucosidase (81 μg PN g—1 h—1) and L-asparaginase (7.3 μg NH4-N g—1 2 h—1) activities. These results indicate a severe inhibition of mineralization processes in soils under locust stands. Under agricultural management, chemical and biological parameters expressed medium values with exception for NO3—-N contents which were significantly higher than in SF and FM plots (P ≤ 0.005) and increased with increasing soil depth. Nevertheless, the depth gradient found for all studied parameters was most pronounced in soils under SF. Microbial biomass C and N were correlated to β-glucosidase and L-asparaginase activity (r ≥ 0.63; P ≤ 0.001). Furthermore, microbial biomass and enzyme activities were related to the amounts of readily mineralizable organic C (i.e. Corg(KCl)) with r ≥ 0.41 (P ≤ 0.01), suggesting that (1) KCl-extractable organic C compounds from field-fresh prepared soils represent an important C source for soil microbial populations, and (2) that microbial biomass is an important source for enzymes in soil. The Norg(KCl) pool is not necessarily related to the size of microbial biomass C and N and enzyme activities in soil. Mobile und leicht mobilisierbare C- und N-Fraktionen und ihre Beziehungen zur mikrobiellen Biomasse und ausgewahlten Enzymaktivitaten in einem Sandboden unter verschiedenen Managementsystemen Unterschiedliche Landnutzungssysteme, wie z. B. Landwirtschaft, Forstwirtschaft und Brache, die verschiedenartige Morphologie und Physiologie der Pflanzen verbunden mit einer pflanzenspezifischen Bewirtschaftung bedingen nutzungstypische okologische Bedingungen im Boden. In einer Feldstudie bei Riesa, Nordostdeutschland, wurde die Reaktion von Gesamtgehalten, mobilen und leicht mobilisierbaren Fraktionen an C und N, mikrobieller Biomasse und Aktivitaten von Enzymen des C- und N-Kreislaufes auf verschiedene Landnutzungssysteme in einem Sandboden bestimmt. Die untersuchten Landnutzungssysteme umfassten die Varianten landwirtschaftliche Nutzung (AM), Sukzessionsbrache (SF) und forstliche Nutzung (FM). Die Bodenproben (0—5, 5—10 und 10—30 cm) wurden im Fruhjahr 1999 entnommen und ihre Gehalte an organischem C und Gesamt-N, NH4+-N und NO3—-N, KCl-extrahierbarem organischem C und N (Corg(KCl) und Norg(KCl)), mikrobiellem Biomasse-C und -N und Aktivitaten von β-Glucosidase und L-Asparaginase untersucht. Mit Ausnahme des Norg(KCl) zeigten alle untersuchten C- und N-Fraktionen eine klare Abhangigkeit vom Landnutzungssystem, welche in der Tiefenstufe von 0—5 cm am deutlichsten sichtbar wurde. Im Vergleich zu den anderen Landnutzungssystemen wurden im Boden unter SF (0—5 cm) die hochsten Gehalte an leicht mobilisierbarem C (Corg(KCl)), NH4+-N, mikrobiell gebundenem C und N sowie die hochsten Enzymaktivitaten festgestellt. Diese Unterschiede waren mit P ≤ 0,05 bis P ≤ 0,001 signifikant. Vergleichsweise hohe Cmic : Corg-Verhaltnisse von 2,4 bis 3,9 % im Boden unter SF deuten auf einen intensiveren C- und N-Umsatz hin als unter AM und FM. Unter Forstnutzung wurden 1,5 bis 2 mal hohere Gehalte an organischen C im Vergleich zur SF und AM festgestellt. Diese hohen Gehalte an organischem C waren gekoppelt an niedrige Gehalte an mikrobiell gebundenen C (78 μg g—1) und N (10,7 μg g—1), extrem niedrige Cmic : Nmic-Verhaltnisse (0,2—0,6 %) und niedrige Aktivitaten von β-Glucosidase (81 μg PN g—1 h—1) und L-Asparaginase (7,3 μg NH4-N g—1 (2h)—1). Die Ergebnisse deuten auf eine Hemmung von Mineralisierungsprozessen im Boden unter Robinie hin. Mit Ausnahme der NO3—-N Gehalte wurden im Boden unter landwirtschaftlicher Nutzung mittlere Gehalte der untersuchten chemischen und biologischen Kennwerte festgestellt. Die NO3—-N Gehalte waren unter AM signifikant hoher als unter SF und FM (P ≤ 0,005) und stiegen mit zunehmender Tiefe an. Der fur alle Untersuchungsgrosen nachgewiesene Tiefengradient war im Boden unter SF am deutlichsten ausgepragt und unter AM in den obersten 30 cm des Mineralbodens fast nicht erkennbar. Der mikrobiell gebundene C und N korrelierte mit der β-Glucosidase- und der L-Asparaginaseaktivitat (r ≥ 0,63; P ≤ 0,001). Desweiteren waren die mikrobielle Biomasse und die Enzymaktivitaten mit den Gehalten an leicht mineralisierbaren C (Corg(KCl)) korreliert (r ≥ 0,41; P ≤ 0,01). Diese Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass (1) KCl-extrahierbare organische C-Verbindungen von feldfeuchten Bodenproben eine bedeutende C-Quelle fur mikrobielle Populationen darstellen, und (2) die mikrobielle Biomasse eine bedeutende Quelle fur Enzyme im Boden ist. Der Norg(KCl)-Pool im Boden hangt jedoch nicht unbedingt mit der Menge an mikrobiell gebundenem C und N sowie mit der Hohe von Enzymaktivitaten in Boden zusammen.

A microfluidic system includes a microfluidic channel. The microfluidic channel includes a control layer substantially enclosed within a soft polymer, a cell covering element, and a flow channel between the cell-covering element and control layer enclosed within the soft polymer. The control layer is operable to move towards and exert a pressure on the cell-covering element. Related apparatus, systems, techniques, and articles are also described.