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PurposeVirtual assignments, in which the virtual assignees do not relocate to host locations, but work remotely, have several advantages compared to traditional international assignments, such as enhanced flexibility, cost-efficiency and the possibility that virtual assignees can stay in their home communities. However, it is open to question whether virtual assignments are as effective as traditional assignments. The purpose of this study is to compare the ability of virtual vs traditional assignees to bridge the distance between headquarters and subsidiaries.Design/methodology/approachBased on a survey among virtual and traditional assignees, the ability to bridge multiple facets of distance is examined.FindingsThe results indicate that virtual and traditional assignees have similar abilities to bridge geographic, cultural, functional and language distance. However, traditional assignees have a higher ability to bridge emotional and temporal distance.Originality/valueBy applying the distance framework to virtual assignments, a new theoretical perspective is introduced and the importance of clearly disentangling distance-bridging abilities is highlighted. One practical recommendation is that, due to lower costs and reduced coordination efforts required for virtual assignments, this assignment type is preferable if the cultural, language, functional and geographic distances are the most problematic ones during international assignments.

PurposeInternational assignments rely on interactions between host country nationals (HCNs) and an international assignee (IA). These interactions are significantly determined by the reputation that the IA holds among HCNs. However, reputation has only scarcely been addressed in extant mobility research, and there is a lack of understanding about how the reputation of an IA shifts among HCNs during the course of an assignment. The purpose of this paper is to understand the development of an individual's reputation as well as the interactions between an IA and HCNs in the context of international assignments.Design/methodology/approachThis is a conceptual paper that builds upon the central idea in extant research of individual reputation as a social construction and draws on sensemaking theory to develop its conceptual model.FindingsAs extant research argues for both a temporal and dynamic dimension of reputation, the authors introduce time and reputational richness as central model elements. Furthermore, the conceptual model proposes reputational events as the principal triggers for reputational shifts. Reputational events reveal quantitatively and qualitatively new informational cues about the IA to HCNs, who then use these cues to incrementally construct the IA's reputation in sensemaking processes. In addition, contextual factors of reputational shifts, namely accelerators and amplifiers, are discussed. The authors argue that these contextual factors may affect both the timing and the strength of reputational shifts.Originality/valueThe study introduces a novel conceptual model and contributes to the understanding of individual reputation development as well as the interactions between an IA and HCNs in international assignments.

PurposeInternational human resource management research has only recently started to recognize the many millions of people who engage with the international labor market as low-skilled self-initiated expatriates. In contrast to company-assigned expatriates, they predominantly come from less-developed countries (often from rural areas) and independently decide to pursue an international career. The aim of this study is apply an expatriate-centered perspective and explore how expatriates at the base of the pyramid perceive the conditions of their international employment.Design/methodology/approachThe paper is based on a qualitative study among self-initiated expatriates in the tourism and hospitality industry in the United Arab Emirates (UAE).FindingsTwo theoretical categories that reflect the evaluation of expatriate employment were identified, namely the social comparison with friends and family who stayed at home as well as with other expatriates and locals and the temporal comparison to the situation before the expatriation and the prospective situation after the expatriation. Both categories largely differ from the concepts and categories prevalent in the expatriate literature.Research limitations/implicationsThe study contributes to the understanding of the temporal and transitory dimensions of expatriation, which have been barely addressed in the academic literature. It shows that self-initiated expatriation often represents a break in the professional and personal biography. It is less perceived as linear continuation of a steadily advancing career path than a restart or springboard to the future. The results are situated in the tourism and hospitality sector in the UAE and cannot be generalized to other countries and industries.Practical implicationsThe study emphasizes the relevance of social inclusion, equal opportunities, a safe work environment and a relaxed corporate culture for expatriates at the base of the pyramid.Originality/valueWhile research about self-initiated expatriates usually compares them with company-backed assignees, this comparison is not salient in the narratives of the interviewees in this study. Instead, low-skilled self-initiated expatriates predominately compare their current foreign assignment with the situation in their home country. This social comparison reflects their perceived reality of life better than a fictional comparison with highly skilled and company-assigned expatriates that is prevalent in the academic expatriation literature. By emphasizing an expatriate-centered perspective, the study supports and extends Piore's (1979) application of segmented labor market theory.

This study examines whether and how Corporate Social Responsibility reports of firms in the automobile industry differ in regards to their linguistic composition and their decoupling tendencies. Ba...

Purpose Blockchain technology has extended beyond the border of cryptocurrency and taken hold in various areas of international business. This study aims to analyze the impacts of blockchain on international business and the resulting challenges and implications for global governance. Design/methodology/approach The analysis of multiple blockchain applications in international finance, banking and insurance, supply chain management and logistics and marketing and advertising shows that the use of blockchain in international business has different impacts on global governance. Findings Although the protection of property rights can be improved and transaction costs can be reduced, the effects on other functions of global governance are more ambivalent. Research limitations/implications As a recommendation for future studies, the need for more multidisciplinary and empirical research is proposed. Practical implications As the technology disrupts business activities, it also affects the governance of these activities on a global scale. Suggestions for the future regulation of blockchain applications in international business are developed. Originality/value Blockchain technology has extended beyond the border of cryptocurrency and taken hold in various areas of international business. This study aims to analyze the impacts of blockchain on international business and the resulting challenges and implications for global governance. The application of blockchain technology in international business across multiple industries is explored in order to draw conclusions about its impacts on global governance. It is determined that blockchain brings about both challenges and benefits for global governance.

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to investigate how the attitudes of Russian managers are affected by personal attributes, environmental conditions and also cognitive processes.Design/methodology/approachBased on social cognitive theory, the authors developed hypotheses and tested them against data collected from 173 Russian managers via an online survey. A linear regression analysis revealed several determinants of ethical attitudes within the Russian context.FindingsThe findings suggest that personal values (i.e. political orientation), environmental conditions (i.e. hierarchical level, ownership – state-owned versus private – of the current employer, industry in which a manager works) as well as cognitive processes (i.e. the presence (absence) of multilingualism at the workplace) strongly affect ethical attitudes of Russian managers in several issues related to both job ethics (relations inside the organization) and business ethics (relations outside the organization).Practical implicationsRevealing a positive effect of multilingualism as cognitive process on managers' ethical attitudes, this study calls for incorporating a second lingua franca, for example, English, within the working context.Originality/valueThe study provides an in-depth investigation of the determinants of ethical attitudes in Russia. Conducting a single-country study, the authors are able to reveal locally meaningful determinants that may otherwise be overlooked.

Im Mittelpunkt des folgenden Kapitels stehen die Instrumente des Personalmanagement, welche die Akteure vor dem Hintergrund der jeweiligen Bedingungen einsetzen. Dabei wird in die Personalbedarfsplanung und -bedarfsdeckung, den Personaleinsatz, die Personalentlohnung und die Personalfuhrung unterschieden.

Purpose The purpose of this study is to analyze the effects of inpatriates’ abilities, motivation and opportunities on knowledge sharing and the moderating role of boundary spanning in this context. Design/methodology/approach By integrating the ability–motivation–opportunity framework with the concept of boundary spanning four hypotheses are developed, which are tested against the data of 187 inpatriates working in Germany. Findings The study reveals that inpatriates’ motivation and certain opportunities are positively related to knowledge sharing, whereas inpatriates’ abilities do not show a positive effect. Moreover, it is shown that inpatriate boundary spanning has a moderating effect on this relationship. Originality/value Based on the results, the study enhances the current literature by introducing the concept of reputation asymmetry. Moreover, requirements of how inpatriates’ assignments should be designed and implications for further research are outlined.

PurposeThis paper aims to examine how future top managers in India develop their corporate social responsibility (CSR) orientation. Based on socialization theory, this paper investigates how individual determinants influence CSR orientation by focusing on the two main drivers of CSR in India – the philanthropic and strategic imperatives.Design/methodology/approachA survey of 204 students currently enrolled in a post-graduation program at an Indian Institute of Management was conducted via an online questionnaire. By applying a logistic regression analysis, determinants of CSR orientation are revealed.FindingsThe results of the study indicate the influence of different factors of primary and secondary socialization on an individual’s CSR orientation. The study finds that women and younger individuals have a tendency toward a strategic CSR orientation. Alternatively, religiousness and emotional stability predict a philanthropic CSR orientation. Furthermore, business school education leads to a strategic CSR orientation.Research limitations/implicationsThe study focuses on a number of determinants that were evaluated to be important. Future research should broaden the scope and include additional, and more sensitive, factors.Practical implicationsThe study provides insights that organizations can incorporate in their recruiting processes to strengthen their CSRO development.Originality/valueThe study addresses the gap that exists in current literature on CSRO in India by not just describing but diving deeper and investigating the demographic and psychographic determinants of individuals’ CSRO. A step further is taken to identify individuals’ inclinations toward either a strategic or a philanthropic approach to CSR.

Digital transformation has opened novel opportunities for educators to approach the challenges of educating tomorrow’s business leaders and managers. New methods of instruction such as blended lear...

Foreign acquisitions are perceived as threats to organizational identification. Consequently, they trigger members’ sensemaking on their relationship with the organization. Analyzing these sensemaking processes is fundamental to understanding how members interpret identity-threatening events and which logics and motives underlie their identification. We conducted interviews with 28 members of a German company that had been acquired by a Chinese competitor. The study reveals three phases of sensemaking about identification, namely assessment of uncertainty, evaluation of organizational continuity, and reassessment of the organization’s potential for self-enhancement. Initially, concerns for uncertainty reduction are prevalent. Needs for continuity, distinctiveness, and self-verification dominate continuity evaluation. In the last phase, members seek continuous self-enhancement. They hereby evaluate whether they still share the organization's ideology. Furthermore, they reassess the benefits they receive from the organization. The study constitutes a dynamic extension of identification theory. It uncovers salient identification motives and members’ causal reasoning during different sensemaking phases.

Kirste and Holtbrugge analyze Huawei’s role in the global power play of establishing the 5G network rollout, adding to the scientific discussion of 5G on both a business and society level. This chapter takes an innovative approach by applying a theoretical framework to the recent debate on Huawei’s 5G participation and evaluating the prevalent perspectives on digitalization in China, the EU, and the USA. Building on dependency theory, dynamic power asymmetries of governments and multinational corporations in the Huawei case are analyzed and discussed. The authors find that the network structures of both multinational enterprises and 5G technology pose significant potential for countries to gain influence and power over other governments. Subsequently, theory-informed insights for practitioners and policymakers in the field of 5G are provided.

Like in many other areas, football clubs are confronted with the challenge to expand international activities and to exploit new football markets abroad without upsetting the local fans who have supported the team, often for decades. The purpose of this study is to analyze the impact of fan attitudes toward the internationalization of football clubs on attitudinal and behavioral loyalty. Based on the integration-responsiveness framework and the brand loyalty concept, seven hypotheses were tested through multivariate regression analyses against a sample of 3857 football fans from 10 different countries. The results show a negative impact of internationalization activities that create tension among local fans on attitudinal loyalty, such as business activities, players and coaches, and owners. However, the results show no significant impact of such activities on behavioral loyalty. In contrast, the internationalization of fans and sponsors does not create tension and thus has a positive impact on attitudinal and behavioral loyalty. The relationships between internationalization activities and fan loyalty are partially moderated by the fans’ country of residence. By linking internationalization strategies to the brand loyalty concept, this research contributes to the discussion about standardization and adaptation advantages, and to the discussion on antecedents of brand loyalty. This study helps club managers to plan their internationalization activities effectively. The approach to segment customers into satellite and local fans helps managers to devise segment-specific internationalization activities.

This study uses data at the firm level to examine the relationship between the market entry strategies of 556 Chinese MNEs and their performance in Germany. Based on the revisited Uppsala internationalization process model, we develop six hypotheses on the impact of different market entry modes on performance, and on the moderating effect of home government support on this relationship. The findings show significant effects of location choice, activity mode and establishment mode, as well as duration of market presence on performance. Furthermore, strong interaction effects of home government support on these relationships reveal that the advantages of different market entry strategies are amplified by home government support. We conclude with theoretical and managerial implications, as well as a reflection of limitations and directions for future research. We conclude with theoretical and managerial implications as well as a reflection of limitations and directions of future research. The study contributes to international management research by integrating performance effects and the facilitating role of home government support into the internationalization process model.

Studying abroad is recognized as a key strategy in preparing students for future international engagements and increasing their cultural intelligence (CQ). Although several studies explore the impa...

The aim of the study is to develop an encompassing conceptual model of cross-cultural training (CCT) effectiveness which illustrates the relationship between CCT and intercultural competence. A literature review was conducted in order to identify relevant contextual moderators and mediators of CCT effectiveness. The literature review focuses on 20 journal articles and three doctoral dissertations published between 1966 and 2015, and reveals that CCT effectiveness is particularly moderated by the international experience of the trainee, the cultural distance between the home and the host country, personality factors and the trainee's learning style. Important mediators are, among others, cultural intelligence and cultural adjustment. The identified moderators and mediators were categorised to increase the general validity of the conceptual model. The model is in line with Bandura's social cognitive theory and allows conclusions to be drawn for the selection of training candidates as well as the design and evaluation of CCT.

This cross-country study investigates the antecedents and outcomes of corporate social responsibility (CSR) practices. Based on institutional theory and stakeholder theory, we conducted an empirical study among 519 firms in Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands. We found evidence that supports a significant positive relationship between stakeholder pressures, CSR practices, and business outcomes in the total sample. While our data reveals similarities between the three countries, differences in some areas can be observed as well. Implications for institutional theory and for CSR are derived.

Expatriates are not only sent to industrialized countries with stable environmental conditions, but also to countries that bear high political, social, and even terrorist risk. Despite its practical relevance, the role of expatriates’ families on assignments in terrorism-endangered countries has not been addressed yet. Integrating expatriate literature and family systems theory we investigate the family-related performance antecedents of 121 expatriate managers assigned to a terrorism-endangered country. We find evidence that safety-related intra-family tension significantly impedes expatriates’ work performance. Perceived organizational support can help to diminish this influence. We discuss our results and conclude with further implications for theory and practice.

In order to successfully operate and compete in developed markets, Chinese, Indian and Russian companies require essential resources. Particularly, attracting competent and highly qualified employees is crucial in order to gain comparative advantage. However, potential employees are not yet familiar with or reluctant toward companies from these countries. This study analyzes how attractive Chinese, Indian and Russian companies are perceived by potential employees in Germany. On the basis of signaling theory, it furthermore explores which human resource (HR) practices may enhance employer attractiveness. A survey was conducted among potential employees in Germany using a self-administered questionnaire that resulted in a total number of 726 respondents. The study shows that compensation and job security are the most important HR practices with regard to employer attractiveness. Significant differences among countries and industries are revealed.

Previous literature on foreign assignments shows a high relevance of mentors for expatriates’ success. In this study we analyse the impact of different mentor-related factors on skill and career development. Drawing on social exchange theory, we develop five research hypotheses and test them using a sample of 59 US expatriates on assignments in Germany. Linear regression modelling reveals that organizational distance between the mentee and the mentor as well as the mentor’s involvement in career planning are positively related to skill development. Furthermore, there is a positive relationship between skill development and career development. We derive important implications for the implementation of mentoring in multinational corporations. The study is of value for researchers and practitioners in the areas of human resource management and organization.

This paper investigates the impact of personal attributes and organizational conditions on attitudes toward corporate misdeeds. On the basis of social cognitive theory, we develop hypotheses that are tested against data collected from 215 German employees using an online survey. Our findings suggest that personal attributes (i.e. gender, age, Big five personality traits) have a much greater impact on ethical attitudes than organizational conditions (i.e. organizational culture). Further, a moderating effect of control-oriented culture on the relationship between personality traits (i.e. conscientiousness, extraversion) and attitudes toward corporate misdeeds is found. We derive implications for human resource management and further theory development.

Low-income markets have attracted the interest of academics, politicians, and business leaders alike. In recent years, numerous companies such as Unilever, Cemex, Tetrapak, and Vodafone have provided evidence that low-income markets offer commercial business opportunities and that private companies can realize profitable business activities while simultaneously contributing to the alleviation of poverty. However, companies are challenged by constraining conditions such as poor infrastructure, nonexistent distribution channels, illiteracy, corruption, lack of enforceable legal frameworks, and violent conflicts when entering those markets. In order to succeed, companies develop new strategies, introduce innovative business models, and develop novel capabilities. Three innovative practices are commonly named in the literature that should enable companies to operate successfully in low-income markets: (1) integrating the local population and local entrepreneurs to cocreate products; (2) cooperating with nontraditional or fringe stakeholders; and (3) building local capacity, which means improving the market conditions of low-income markets. This study applies a resource dependence perspective as it provides valuable explanations on the interaction between companies and their environment, how companies cope with environmental constraints, and how the environment and different strategies affect business outcomes. By integrating a resource dependence perspective, the study theoretically frames the strategic recommendations of the literature and answers the underlying research question of whether environmental conditions of low-income markets cause the execution of innovative practices and whether such practices influence the outcome of companies operating in low-income markets. The research hypotheses are tested in a structural equation model against data of 103 firms operating in low-income markets. The study reveals that companies integrate local actors to cocreate products and cooperate with nontraditional and fringe stakeholders to reduce resource dependency. Local capacity building, which means improving the local environment, is only applied by companies when strong partnerships with nontraditional and fringe stakeholders are established. Finally, the study shows that partnerships with nontraditional and fringe stakeholders as well as local capacity building have a positive effect on organizational performance. Thus, when companies aim to enter low-income markets, they should not follow the recommendation of the transaction cost theory and internalize resources, but rather cooperate with nontraditional partners and invest in the local environment. Moreover, the study shows that market entries into low-income markets require long-term commitments to engage in partnerships with regional authorities, local community groups, and nongovernmental organizations. Without these partnerships, it is not possible to reduce high resource dependencies and to establish successful businesses in low-income markets. Thus, governments should create general conditions that facilitate the creation of partnerships between nontraditional actors and companies, and assist them to improve environmental conditions in these markets.

Although many industries are becoming more and more global, the national background of firms still matters. Especially latecomers from emerging markets, such as China, face considerable competitive disadvantages due to negative country-of-origin effects. These can be observed particularly in countries with strong local competitors. The aim of this study is to explore the perceptions of Chinese cars by European consumers. More specifically, we analyze the impact of country-of-origin effects on product evaluations and purchase intentions of German and French consumers. Based on the literature on country-of-origin effects and product evaluations, we develop five research hypotheses and test them in a sample of 347 consumers in France and Germany. The study reveals that Chinese cars are evaluated significantly worse than German cars in terms of quality and performance and appearance and attractiveness. These negative country-of-origin effects are moderated by socio-demographic, psychographic, and product-related factors.

Expatriate adjustment has recurrently been linked to predicting the performance of individuals, in that the better the foreign adjustment achieved, the more successfully they will perform (Takeuchi, Wang, & Marinova, Personnel Psychology, 58(4): 925–948, 2005). By reviewing empirical research on expatriate adjustment, we produce a comprehensive overview, expounding the antecedents, dimensions, and effects of expatriate adjustment. More explicitly, the multidimensionality of expatriate adjustment is elucidated, which is structured according to three dimensions, the adjustment to the general environment, adjustment to the work situation, and adjustment to interacting with host nationals. All dimensions are further explained according to individual, work-related, and non-work environmental factors. Moreover, we construct a framework for each of these dimensions, subsuming the findings as examined in prior empirical research.