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The knowledge base on various forms of structuring students' learning by ability grouping is more robust than that on teachers' instructional practices being implemented within these groupings. The present study examines if student-reported mathematics teachers' instructional practices vary among schools with different degrees of implementing between-class ability grouping and if between-class ability grouping moderates the relationship between these practices and students' mathematics achievement. International data from 281,591 fifteen-year-old students and 11,765 principals were analysed. One-way ANOVA showed that students perceived greater implementation of teachers' instructional practices in schools with more between-class ability grouping. However, hierarchical linear modelling (HLM) results showed that between-class ability grouping did not moderate the relationship between teachers' instructional practices and students' mathematics achievement. These results imply that it is more important to examine the relationship between teachers' instructional practices and students' achievement in homogenous ability classes vis-à-vis that between ability grouping and students' achievement per se.

The field of educational leadership has yet to develop a coherent knowledge base that reflects the global diversity of policies and practices. This disconnect -- for example between Asian and Western research, presents a major challenge, curtailing authentic knowledge production and transfer. Accordingly, a major objective for the field is the creation of a cross-culturally valid knowledge base with global relevance. This conceptual paper addresses the phenomenon of global knowledge construction in educational leadership and the challenges of achieving coherence and connectivity between bodies of research from diverse politico-socio-cultural settings. In achieving greater connectivity between Asian and Western educational leadership research, a cross-cultural comparative approach is advocated. A comparatively informed universal knowledge base would highlight current ethnocentricity characterizing the field, and the socio-cultural embeddedness of educational leadership. While acknowledging the benefits and challenges of such an approach, the paper advocates four types of cultural and cross-cultural comparative studies, namely, meta studies of large data sets, socio-educational studies placing leadership in a social milieu context; system reform studies based on initiatives to improve education systems; and indigenous studies of educational leadership reflecting the uniqueness of societal cultures. Finally, the paper suggests more robust research methods for achieving authentic cross-cultural connectivity across knowledge bases to secure authentic knowledge production and transfer.

Singapore is described as a hybrid neoliberal-developmental state. While politicians have, since the city-state's independence, exercised 'strong' ideological leadership over Singapore's economy and society, including education -- there are simultaneously aspects of 'neoliberal' logics in Singapore's education system: extensive school choice and streaming, academic competition and the self-responsibilising meritocratic ethos. Literature on the nature and effects of neoliberalism typically depicts rising inequalities and families' growing anxieties, due to competition and self-responsibilisation. Drawing on in-depth interviews, this article explores how a group of low-income Malay parents navigate two aspects of institutionalised neoliberalism: (1) responsibilisation of young people within a meritocratic regime; and (2) responsibilisation of parents as stakeholders in an increasingly complex education landscape. We find that while families internalise responsibilisation -- profound trust in the state remains. Empirical particularities are drawn upon to understand how a socio-politically-constituted 'architecture of trust' between state and low-income parents is built, and its implications on families' lives.

This article reports findings from a study of principals in five multiethnic schools in England. Findings are presented in terms of the major priorities or values held by the principals, the strategies they instituted to bring their priorities to life, and some of the challenges they continue to face in this endeavor. The principals involved believed that they could make a difference in their schools and were proactive, but at the same time, realistic about what could be achieved. They distinguished themselves by aggressively tackling disadvantages related to ethnicity, racism, culture, and poverty.

System leadership is a developing concept and practice increasingly seen as a tool for school improvement, as policymakers switch from traditional top-down reform to professional models of schools working collaboratively. System leadership is being championed by the Scottish College for Educational Leadership (SCEL), but is still in its infancy in Scottish education. Adopting an international perspective on system leadership, but with reference to the Scottish context, the paper aims first, to clarify the concept and its various connotations, and to focus on the notion of headteachers and other school-level professionals as system leaders. Secondly, it goes on to describe the range of roles that system leaders can play and how these present a degree of choice--and a trajectory--for head teachers in choosing appropriate roles that reflect their expertise, experience, self-efficacy, credibility, and interest. Finally, adopting a critical stance towards the concept and practice of system leadership--to date the focus has been more on roles and less on substantive capacity building competences required by system leaders for school improvement--the paper redresses the imbalance.

This paper argues the need for coherent, holistic frameworks offering insightful understandings as well as viable, connected and synergistic solutions to schools in addressing pressing problems arising from the acknowledged gaps between research, practice and professional development. There is a need to conceptualise a comprehensive conceptual framework that rationalises, constructs and connects salient professional development concepts and practices fit for purpose in twenty-first-century schools. Specifically, three themes conceptualise existing problems faced by schools and their possible solutions: first, bridging the research-policy-practice gap by mobilising knowledge more effectively through knowledge producers and consumers working collaboratively; second, valuing and integrating both tacit knowledge and academic coded knowledge; and third, raising the professionalism and reflectivity of teachers and leaders. However, a new organisational and human infrastructure is needed to enable these solutions to be realised in school practice. Arguably, three responses are critical to this challenge of knowledge mobilisation; all are achievable through the powerful unifying concept of the "research-engaged school". The three responses are: research engagement on the part of all teachers and leaders; creating schools and school networks as professional learning communities; and adopting a workable methodology (namely, research-design-development) for teachers and leaders to put research into practice and tailor innovations to specific school contexts.

International comparative data on student performance has led McKinsey&Company, among others, to suggest that education systems will inexorably converge in their developmental trajectories with principals and schools enjoying more autonomy. This article challenges these assumptions through referencing Singapore where schools and professionals are still tightly controlled in key resources, curricula and assessment, and where other key factors contribute to its success--thereby evidencing multiple pathways to success.

The present study aims to generate broad insights from the large corpus of literature on the associations between a comprehensive range of school leadership practices and student outcomes in different school contexts. Three-level meta-analysis of 493 independent effects from 108 studies published since 2000 showed that the mean effect size was small at r = 0.14. Effect sizes for leadership practices ranged from r 's = 0.10 to.26. Results underscored the importance of different types of leadership practices related to instructional management, enhancing teacher capacity, and engaging external stakeholders to improve student outcomes. School leadership practices were significantly associated with students' academic achievement (in different subjects except science) and learning attitudes/processes but not attainment. Moderator analyses showed that school leadership effects were significant in studies using a school-level analysis but not in those using a lower-level of analysis. Additionally, school leadership effects were significant at different grade levels (G1–G6, G7–G12) and in research reported in different study types (articles, dissertations) and in different years (2000–2009, 2010–2018). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyses the paradox inherent in the "top-performing" yet tightly controlled Singapore education system. As government controls have increased in complexity, existing policymaking conceptual heuristics in accounting for centre-periphery relationships appear inadequate. It argues that more direct government control is being replaced by "steering through paternalism from close proximity", reflecting a more subtle centre-periphery relationship in an Asian context.

This study investigates the socialization and professional experiences of primary school physical education teachers (PSPETs) in the Asian context of Hong Kong. A qualitative research design is adopted. The researcher used semi-structured interviews, supplemented by documentary sources (diaries) for conducting data collection. Eleven PSPETs participated in this study. Data were analysed through open axial and selective coding. The concepts of organizational sensitivity, sources of satisfaction, dealing with influential persons or critical incidents, status of the profession, educational reform as a trend, and versatile roles are revealed in the theory of "Diversified Professionalism". The substantive theory thus contributes to an increased appreciation of the PSPETs' work and to the literature on physical education teachers' professionalization and professionalism.

This article describes a grounded theory constructed from a study of Singapore neighbourhood secondary school principals' engagement of their lowest stream, the Normal Technical students, in their schools. This substantive theory is labelled the "theory of selective engagement". It implies that how principals engage their lowest streamed students is based on the way they perceive streaming as practiced in the Singapore education system, their perception of the Normal Technical students and their personal expectations of these students. The theory proposes that principals can be classified as "realists/pragmatists", "innovators/improvisers" and "nurturers" according to the extent they selectively engage their students in areas such as: (1) Streaming/Lateral Movement; (2) Monitoring; (3) Deployment of Resources; (4) Subject Offerings; (5) Enrichment Programmes; (6) Managing Discipline; (7) Leadership Opportunities; and (8) Treatment of Students. (Contains 5 figures.)

This study investigates the career trajectory of primary school physical education teachers (PSPETs) in Hong Kong. It is focused on the problems arising from apparent overload and the multiple roles of physical education teachers' career development in Hong Kong brought about by education and curriculum reforms. The specific research question is, "What are PSPETs' career aims and how do they describe and conceptualize their career trajectories?" A qualitative research design is adopted to gain an in-depth understanding of the meaning that participants make of their career life. The researchers used semi-structured interviews, supplemented by documentary sources (diaries) for conducting data collection. Through purposive sampling methods (snowball sampling), 11 Hong Kong PSPETs participated in this study. Data were analyzed through three major types of coding, namely: open coding, axial coding and selective coding. The results revealed that PSPETs share both similarities and differences through their career development processes. The meaning and interpretation of "assimilation" varies among the PSPETs. Their capacity for assimilation acts as the core factor in exploring the PSPETs' career trajectories. The concepts of (a) characteristics of the organization, (b) self-orientation of career, (c) other obligations, and (d) career aspirations are clustered into the Assimilating (Career trajectory) category, which describes PSPETs' career aims and conceptualizations of their career trajectory. PSPETs have diversified in and adapted to all aspects of their career life within a continuing, evolving scenario of education reforms. The influences and relationships that they perceived were clearly implicated in their career choice and path. PSPETs in this study revealed that disadvantages can be overcome by adapting to the diverse nature of their job and by overcoming the otherwise limited scope of their work, meaning PSPETs can assimilate more closely into the culture and context of the organization. (Contains 1 table.)

Purpose: While Singapore's outstanding educational achievements are well known worldwide, there is a disproportionate paucity of literature on school leadership practices that contribute to and support pedagogical initiatives that--along with socio-cultural factors--are normally considered responsible for its educational success. The aim of this paper is to explicate system-wide school leadership factors that contribute to Singapore's educational success. Design/methodology/approach: The paper includes critical discussion, review of literature and conceptualization. Findings: It is argued that three unique features of Singapore school leadership, namely--logistics of a small tightly-coupled school system, human resource policies that reinforce alignment, and a distinctive "leader-teacher compact" reflecting the predominant Chinese culture--account for the extraordinary level of tight coupling and alignment of leadership across the school system. In turn, these unique features bring synergies of sustainability, scalability, succession, and high performance across the entire Singapore school system. Research limitations/implications: Unique features of Singapore school leadership must be examined in conjunction with pedagogical initiatives and socio-cultural factors for a more complete and nuanced understanding of educational success in Singapore. Practical implications: Tightly coupled mechanisms of leadership underlie the success of Singapore education. Government needs to consider whether such tightly- coupled leadership will continue to serve it well in future, given the demand for twenty-first century knowledge based skills. Social implications: The influence of socio-cultural factors (e.g. leader-teacher compact) on educational success merits inclusion in any explanation. Originality/value: This paper addresses an important gap in the literature by promulgating crucial features of school leadership that contribute to Singapore's educational success.

While the literature on professional learning communities (PLCs) has proliferated, much of it derived from and contextualised in Anglo-American settings, the concept and practice of PLCs in Asian contexts of strong hierarchies have largely been ignored. Based on literature and documentary analysis, this paper investigates the systemic implementation of PLCs in Singapore schools. The authors seek to show first how policy developments have in effect been laying the seedbed for PLCs for some 13 years, and yet evidence suggests that teacher pedagogy has been slow to change. Secondly, Singapore educational cultural and institutional contexts are reviewed to reveal how they mediate and filter "Western" notions of PLCs. Three potential implementation difficulties are identified--high teacher workloads, ambiguity of PLC processes and their efficacy, and hierarchical system and workplaces. Conclusions and implications emphasise the importance of effective school leadership in developing PLC practices, and how societal culture and context fundamentally shape the form that PLCs take.

Within the context of fierce global economic competition, school diversification and specialist schools have been seen by governments as cornerstones of education policy to engineer school improvement in both England and Singapore for more than a decade. In both systems, the policy has manifested in different school types, school names and sometimes buildings--in England, specialist status schools, academies and most recently free schools; and in Singapore, specialist schools and niche schools. Diversification is promoted by each school emphasising distinctiveness in its curriculum--often with implications for its funding and degree of autonomy--which differentiate it from others. There is normally the intention to scale-up curricular innovations school-wide. The paper addresses three aims in respect to both countries: first, it profiles the evolution of specialist schools' policies in both states in relation to school improvement and secondly, social justice; thirdly, it undertakes a comparative policy analysis in order to draw conclusions as to how the relationship between central government and schools has re-configured in both countries--arguing that the policy in England is radical, that in Singapore, conservative.

This paper argues that it is timely for educational researchers in Asia, and Singapore in particular, to generate cultural- and empirical-knowledge bases in school leadership that will speak to the specific interests of Asian students, educators and practitioners. As economic and social development across Asia gathers momentum, the more advanced Asian systems of education, such as Singapore, Hong Kong and Taiwan, will increasingly have the resources and expertise to launch significant research programmes in school leadership and organisational change, thereby challenging the persistent and present dominance of Anglo-American perspectives. The paper reports a planned large scale research programme for school leadership and organisational change in Singapore. Support for such a programme from all three major stakeholders--the Ministry of Education (MOE), the National Institute of Education (NIE) and school leaders and teachers--is conditional on the research programme leading to school improvement and better student outcomes. The paper sketches the politico-cultural-economic conditions of Singapore in which such an agenda has been formed; describes the main features of the research programme; and then relates its features to a possible broader Asian and international research agenda in school leadership. The planned Singapore programme has congruence with a future international research agenda advocated by scholars for the field of educational leadership. (Contains 2 figures.)

This study investigates the experiences of academics who became department heads in a post-1992 UK university and explores the influence that being in the position has on their planned future academic career. Drawing on life history interviews undertaken with 17 male and female heads of department, the paper constitutes an in-depth study of their careers in the same university. The findings suggest that academics who become department heads not only need the capacity to assume a range of personal and professional identities, but need flexibility to regularly adopt and switch between them. Whether individuals can successfully balance and manage such multiple identities, or whether they experience major conflicts within or between them, greatly affects their experiences of being a head of department and seems to influence their subsequent career decisions. The paper concludes by proposing a conceptual framework and typology to interpret the career trajectories of academics that became department heads in the case university. (Contains 1 figure and 1 table.)

Singapore has a high performing school system; its students top international tests in maths and science. Yet while the Singapore government cherishes its world class "brand", it realises that in a globally competitive world, its schools need to prepare students for the twenty-first-century knowledge-based economy (KBE). Accordingly, over the past 13 years, the government has been laying a policy platform conducive to innovative curricula and pedagogy. Despite the government's command and control ethos, and a history of school responsiveness to economic needs, schools have yet to undertake serious transformation in preparing students for the KBE. This article argues that the present focus on innovation in the curriculum, pedagogy and assessment needs to be accompanied by a simultaneous re-configuration in leadership and school organisation, thus generating school-wide transformation. It comprises three parts: the first maps the connectivity between the economic and education development of Singapore since 1965 to the present; the second outlines the human resource implications of KBEs for a twenty-first-century curriculum; and the third maps the transformation of school leadership and organisation that is needed if curricular and pedagogic innovations are to be successful. (Contains 1 figure and 1 table.)

This paper reports a study aimed at developing a substantive theory on the perspectives of Mainland Chinese studying in Singaporean universities. The study was guided by two research questions: (1) Why do university students from Mainland China choose to study in Singapore? and (2) How do Mainland Chinese university students manage the experience of studying in Singapore, a different cultural environment? A grounded theory approach was adopted and the so-called theory of "selective pragmatism" was generated. The theory suggests that Mainland Chinese students at Singaporean universities can be classified into three "types"--the "intellectuals", the "opportunists" and the "loyalists"--according to how they individually exercise choices and decisions based on four categories--push forces in regard to China, pull forces in regard to Singapore; individual resilience in coping and adapting to life overseas; and future career intentions. Common to all, however, is pragmatism, which is selectively exercised in different ways, thereby distinguishing the three types. (Contains 1 note and 4 figures.)

Surprisingly little is known about the micro-leadership and management of the curriculum within schools. This study first applies a purpose-designed set of research instruments to penetrate the micro-workings of school decision-making in curriculum, teaching and learning. Second, it reports the findings from an application of the instruments in six Hong Kong primary schools. In regard to the principal's influence on curriculum, teaching and learning, in four of the six case-study primary schools, the principal's influence was deemed to be direct. This finding stands in contradistinction to the existing body of evidence--gathered mainly from secondary schools--that emphasises the indirect effect of principal leadership. In regard to the second question, concerning the general patterns of within-school curriculum decision-making, leadership and management, there appears to be a high degree of conformity across the six case-study primary schools. (Contains 6 tables and 1 figure.)

Internationalization is a multifaceted concept, with many different interpretations, emphases and purposes. Its amorphous nature is captured in this comparative case study of the internationalization of two contrasting universities: one in the UK, the other in Hong Kong. The cases represent two distinct models of internationalization: the "internationalist" and the "translocalist". A hypothetical third model, the globalist, is also suggested. The three models of internationalization capture different realities reflecting the importance of international, national and institutional contexts, as well as available opportunities and parameters of choice in decisions relating to internationalization.

Trainers and developers of school leaders across the globe are currently searching for models of best practice leadership development programmes. Are there generic features and principles of design underpinning such programmes? This article argues that corroborative evidence of what works in leadership training and development--to influence principals' knowledge, skills, values and behaviours--is now emerging. It describes a model of best practice in Hong Kong called "Blue Skies," founded on and derived from a body of international research-based evidence from successful principal leadership programmes, together with evaluation evidence from another recent Hong Kong leadership programme. First, however, the policy background to leadership preparation in Hong Kong since 1990 is outlined. This is followed by an explanation of the structure for school leader training and development established by the Hong Kong Government since 2000. It is argued that with the structure in place, attention has been able to shift to the design principles of effective leadership programmes that maximize leader learning. Designs based on research evidence of what works emphasize, "inter alia," learning linked to real school contexts, substantial involvement of trained and experienced principals as mentors, flexibility to meet diverse needs, multiple opportunities for reflection, and cohort bonding and networking--all of which form the platform for "Blue Skies."

Purpose: This article aims to identify the main challenges faced by headteachers after taking up their first headship in the UK. It also compares how these challenges have changed over time. Other purposes include the setting of the initial phase of headship within a whole career model and how heads become socialised into the role. Design/methodology/approach: Based on evidence from empirical studies using longitudinal data over a period of 20 years, the paper reviews the challenges faced by new headteachers in the UK; it also advocates a stage model for studying the principalship. Findings: Many of the main challenges experienced by new headteachers remained the same over a 20-year period; most of the differences were accounted for by changes in government policy over the period. The main difficulties included catering with the legacy of previous incumbents, overcoming established school cultures and communication behaviours, coping with poorly performing staff, and countering a poor public image of the school. Originality/value: The paper uses the main longitudinal data set available on the challenges and difficulties experienced by beginning headteachers in the UK; it also contributes conceptually to the socialization of headteachers and suggests a stage model of headship, relating the beginning phase to a holistic perspective of headteachers' career trajectories. (Contains 1 table.)

For too long, leadership has been researched and written about without taking account of context and societal culture. This article takes as its context under researched multi-ethnic urban schools, and looks at leadership--specifically five successful head teacher case studies--of these schools. The research project that it reports was carried out for the National College for School Leadership in the United Kingdom, but the implications from the study cross national boundaries. The findings confirm the centrality of passionate promulgation of values-driven leadership as the hallmark of successful leaders of these schools. Realising that global events and hostilities now for the first time penetrate inside schools to effect their micro-management, the study suggests that notions of head teacher as leader of local learning communities are now obsolete and need replacing with leaders as connected to communities at local, national and global levels. However, the project raised more questions than it answered: we still need to know how leaders conceptualise values such as social justice, inclusion, and equity, and how they put them into practice.

A traditional preoccupation with the immediate and short term on the part of school leaders has recently given way to recognition of the need for, and importance of, strategic leadership. However, this article expresses a number of concerns about recent thinking on strategic leadership, in particular, the view that vision and school improvement planning are sufficient and will deliver school improvement, and that a focus on market-related criteria, such as student enrolment and finance, will suffice. Instead, we argue that strategic leadership is predicated on a capacity for whole-school design for improvement. Comprehensive and holistic school designs conform to detailed and articulated strategic intents. Leaders formulate their holistic school designs and exercise strategic leadership around a coherent set of values and the following key features: learning for all as the centrepiece of the design; connectivity and consistency between the elements of the school in order to achieve synergy; an iterative and backward-mapping process that secures alignment between shorter-term flexibility and responsiveness, and the longer-term design blueprint; and the reflection of, and responsiveness to, social-cultural context, increasingly important in contemporary multiethnic communities.

This article addresses the international positioning and role of the National College for School Leadership (NCSL). The article argues that the college stands as an initiator, exporter, importer and disseminator of leadership research and practice and that the role it adopts in regard to these will determine its international influence. The first part of the article discusses the uniqueness of the college and the possible pathways along which its influence could expand. It acknowledges that in building its sphere of influence the college faces a context of unpredictability and uncertainty. The second part of the article focuses specifically on the international role of the NCSL and suggests that from among a range of alternatives, the college would be wise to adopt a "confrere" role, that is, genuinely mutual dialogue and co-operative learning relationship with researchers and partners overseas. The third part of the article recognizes the associated difficulties and complexities of adopting such a "confrere" role. It goes on to suggest that the likely benefits of such an approach would not only create a rich international learning environment for policy-makers and school leaders alike, but would also benefit the growing number of multicultural schools and communities in the UK.

Proposes a 10-criteria classification framework, derived from current literature, to capture the characteristics of the design, leadership, and implementation of school improvement programs in the United Kingdom. Uses the classification frame to analyze the design model adopted by the secondary school in the case study. Draws conclusions about the usefulness of the framework. (Contains 27 references.) (PKP)

Builds a case for comparative and international educational leadership and management, arguing that developing conceptual frameworks and instrumentation are imperative to keep the field abreast of globalization trends. Proposes a conceptual framework structured around interrelationships between societal and organizational culture and four key school-administration elements. (Contains 19 references.) (MLH)

The educational leadership field has not kept pace with globalizing events in policy and practice. Discusses major issues (transfer of ideas, clarification of cultural concepts, cultural assumptions in management, politico-cultural contexts, and tensions between indigenous cultures and reform tenets) raised in this special issue and expresses them as propositions. (MLH)

The educational management field has developed along ethnocentric (Anglo-American) lines. The five articles in this issue indicate possible directions for developing a comparative school-based approach to school administration. Key constructs, useful frameworks, and data-collection instruments to facilitate rigorous comparative analysis are needed. (MLH)

Discusses the concept of globalization and explores the relationship between globalization and societal culture. States the transfer between systems must be more culturally sensitive. Offers a list of cultural dimensions to gauge the influence of cultures. Argues that greater cultural sensitivity is necessary when raising issues on school reform and improvement. (CMK)