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Socioemotional selectivity theory (Carstensen, 1995) posits a 'positivity effect' in older adults, describing an increasing tendency to attend to, process, interpret, and remember events and others in life in a positive fashion as one ages. Drawing on personal construct theory, Viney (1993) observes increasing integration of constructions of self with others across the lifespan. The current study extends assessment of the positivity effect, integrating it with personal construct theory, by use of Repertory Grid (RepGrid) analysis. Consistent with the positivity effect, older adults (ages 54-86) described others more positively on RepGrid measures in comparison to younger adults (ages 18-25). Older adults also described the self as more similar to others and tended to describe the self more positively. The age groups did not differ in measures of psychological distress or well being with the exception of older adults describing more autonomy. doi: 10.2190/AG.71.1.a

In this article, I take a relational and discursive perspective on young children's self observed in daily natural conversations, and consider the process of semiotic mediation in the observer's recognition. Based on the ideas of co-construction of relationships and identities in conversation, and using excerpts of dialogues between a young child and her mother that deal with the child's experiences at daycare center (hoikuen in Japan) recorded during their car rides, I present how the self of young children in relation to others appears to observers. I regard this genre of self--'presentational self'--as a kind of Gestalt quality appearing in the act of positioning and in the configuration of the child and others presented through the conversation. As a basis of this process, I will discuss the semiotically mediated process of differentiation in 2 aspects of the conversation: first, in the process of conversation when the children and the partners make further extensions of what is shared, and second, in the array of self and others as exposed in the conversation. Copyright [c] 2010 S. Karger AG, Basel Key Words Conversation * Gestalt quality * Self * Semiotic mediation * Young children DOI: 10.1159/000320047

In this cross-cultural study, we tested 2 main hypotheses: first, that an early self-concept along with self-other differentiation is a universal precursor of prosocial behavior in 19-month-olds, and second, that the importance attached to relational socialization goals (SGs) concerning interpersonal responsiveness (obedience, prosocial behavior) is related to toddlers' prosocial behavior. Contrary to these predictions, the results show that mirror self-recognition, as an indicator of early self-concept, was correlated with toddlers' prosociality only in the Berlin sample (N = 38) and not in the Delhi sample (N = 39). As expected, however, Delhi mothers emphasized relational SGs more strongly than did Berlin mothers. There were no cross-cultural differences in toddlers' prosociality. On an individual level, mothers' emphasis on relational SGs (obedience) was a significant predictor of toddlers' prosocial behavior. On the basis of these results, we propose that situational helping behavior based on shared intentional relations provides an alternative developmental pathway for understanding toddlers' prosocial behavior. This view differs from the often-cited view that anticipating other people as autonomous intentional agents with their own psychological states gives rise to prosocial behavior in toddlers. Keywords: prosocial behavior, empathy, self--other differentiation, culture-specific pathways DOI: 10.1037/a0019718

This set of studies was designed to examine the relational underpinnings of child abuse potential in a sample of 51 urban families. In Study 1, lower maternal differentiation of self--most notably, greater emotional reactivity and greater emotional cutoff--along with self-attacking introjects distinguished mothers at higher risk (vs. lower risk) for child maltreatment. In Study 2, patterns of interactive rupture and repair were examined in a subsample of 15 families and found to vary as a function of risk for child maltreatment. Specifically, Structural Analysis of Social Behavior coding (SASB; Benjamin, 1996, 2003) of mother-children interactions during 2 moderately stressful lab tasks revealed higher rates of interactive mismatch and mother-initiated ruptures and fewer successful repairs in families at higher risk for child maltreatment, relative to families at lower risk. Implications for counseling and directions for further translational research are discussed. Keywords: child maltreatment, parenting, differentiation, SASB, relationship rupture DOI: 10.1037/a0020030

This article tests a new model for predicting which aspects of personality are best judged by the self and which are best judged by others. Previous research suggests an asymmetry in the accuracy of personality judgments: Some aspects of personality are known better to the self than others and vice versa. According to the self-other knowledge asymmetry (SOKA) model presented here, the self should be more accurate than others for traits low in observability (e.g., neuroticism), whereas others should be more accurate than the self for traits high in evaluativeness (e.g., intellect). In the present study, 165 participants provided self-ratings and were rated by 4 friends and up to 4 strangers in a round-robin design. Participants then completed a battery of behavioral tests from which criterion measures were derived. Consistent with SOKA model predictions, the self was the best judge of neuroticism-related traits, friends were the best judges of intellect-related traits, and people of all perspectives were equally good at judging extraversion-related traits. The theoretical and practical value of articulating this asymmetry is discussed. Keywords: self-knowledge, accuracy, personality judgment, behavior, peer ratings DOI: 10.1037/a0017908

Recent research has demonstrated self-verification strivings in groups, such that people strive to verify collective identities, which are personal self-views (e.g., 'sensitive') associated with group membership (e.g., 'women'). Such demonstrations stop short of showing that the desire for self-verification can fully transcend the self-other barrier, as in people working to verify ingroup identities (e.g., 'Americans are loud') even when such identities are not self-descriptive ('I am quiet and unassuming'). Five studies focus on such ingroup verification strivings. Results indicate that people prefer to interact with individuals who verify their ingroup identities over those who enhance these identities (Experiments 1-5). Strivings for ingroup identity verification were independent of the extent to which the identities were self-descriptive but were stronger among participants who were highly invested in their ingroup identities, as reflected in high certainty of these identities (Experiments 1-4) and high identification with the group (Experiments 1-5). In addition, whereas past demonstrations of self-verification strivings have been limited to efforts to verify the content of identities (Experiments 1 to 3), the findings also show that they strive to verify the valence of their identities (i.e., the extent to which the identities are valued; Experiments 4 and 5). Self-verification strivings, rather than self-enhancement strivings, appeared to motivate participants' strivings for ingroup identity verification. Links to collective self-verification strivings and social identity theory are discussed. Keywords: ingroup identity, collective self-verification, social identity, identification DOI: 10.1037/a0016358

Young adults in Canada (N = 161) and South Korea (N = 165) rated either themselves or typical others at target ages 25, 45, and 65 years. In both countries, poorer memory was anticipated with each increase in age on all 3 memory belief factors: capacity, change, and locus. Both groups demonstrated a self-protective bias about age-related decline, with Koreans showing a greater effect. These findings demonstrate the cross-cultural generality of negative memory stereotypes of middle and old age and the importance of self-other distinctions in age biases.

Fathers have often been misrepresented in studies evaluating the father's role and the father's relationship to his children, due to being evaluated by theories that were originally intended to study the relationship between mothers and children. The current study evaluates fathers' differentiation and identity status as predictors of their attachment to their children. We used structural equation modeling and multiple regression to evaluate the relationships among the variables. We found that differentiation predicted identity status but that neither differentiation nor identity status predicted attachment. Further, commitment significantly predicted parent attachment, relationship avoidance, and relationship anxiety, whereas crisis significantly predicted only relationship avoidance. The implications of these results for therapists are discussed.

This study examined a model in which the need for reassurance from others and the capacity for self-reinforcement mediated the relationships between two dimensions of perfectionism levaluative concerns [EC] perfectionism and personal standards [PS] perfectionism) and anxiety and depression. Results from structural equation modeling of data from 295 college students from a large midwestern university indicated that the need for reassurance from others and the capacity for self-reinforcement fully mediated the relationship between EC perfectionism and anxiety as well as partially mediated the relationships between PS perfectionism and anxiety and depression. Moreover, 41% of the variance in anxiety and 50% of the variance in depression was explained by EC perfectionism. PS perfectionism, the need for reassurance from others, and/or the capacity for self-reinforcement. Kevwords: perfectionism, validation, anxiety, depression, mediation

In the prisoner's dilemma, self-interest clashes with collective interest. The way players resolve this conflict affects how others view them. Cooperators are seen as more moral than defectors, and, when there is no information about the other player's choice, cooperators and defectors are seen as equally competent. However, players who are defected against are seen as less competent, especially if they themselves cooperated (Experiments 1 and 2). Similarly, cooperators see themselves as more moral, but not as less competent, than defectors do (Experiments 3). Independent of concerns about reputation and self-image maintenance, evidential reasoning contributes to cooperative behavior. Players who project their own attitudes onto others are more likely to cooperate (Experiments 3). Compared with classic game theory, a theory of reputational concerns and evidential reasoning is better equipped to explain empirical patterns of choice behavior in social dilemmas.

Social perception is known to be affected by the social-cognitive process of transference--that is, by a new person bearing a minimal resemblance to a significant other, which activates the significant-other representation and indirectly the relational self. We examined relational processes in social identity and intergroup bias in two studies testing the dual hypothesis--that activating a significant-other representation in transference activates the significant other's ethnic category, which is then applied to the new person, and that under this circumstance the participant's own ethnic identity should also be activated as the relational self is activated, particularly if the participant shares the significant other's ethnicity. This should lead to shifts in intergroup bias as moderated by the ethnic diversity of the significant other's own social network. The evidence largely supports this, revealing the interplay of relational and collective levels of self. Keywords: transference; relational self; significant other; exemplar; social identity; intergroup bias

On the basis of previous research, the authors hypothesize that (a) person descriptive terms can be organized into the broad dimensions of agency and communion of which communion is the primary one; (b) the main distinction between these dimensions pertains to their profitability for the self (agency) vs. for other persons (communion); hence, agency is more desirable and important in the self-perspective, and communion is more desirable and important in the other-perspective; (c) self--other outcome dependency increases importance of another person's agency. Study 1 showed that a large number of trait names can be reduced to these broad dimensions, that communion comprises more item variance, and that agency is predicted by self-profitability and communion by other-profitability. Studies 2 and 3 showed that agency is more relevant and desired for self, and communion is more relevant and desired for others. Study 4 showed that agency is more important in a close friend than an unrelated peer, and this difference is completely mediated by the perceived outcome dependency. Keywords: agency, communion, self versus others, interdependence

Although considerable research has focused on various forms of person-environment fit, little research has examined how person-team and person role fit operate over time in team contexts. To address this gap, the authors examined the dynamic nature of values-based person-team fit and person-role fit. They identified several factors that influence these fit perceptions over time. Individuals were composed into teams that worked intensively over an extended time period. Results suggest that person-team fit, when conceptualized as values congruence, is generally stable over time, but perceptions of person-role fit in teams are dynamic. Individuals' growth satisfaction and performance were positively related to increases in person rote fit over time. Furthermore, the effect of performance on person-role fit was moderated by individuals' general self-efficacy. Implications for managerial practice and future research are discussed. Keywords: fit, teams, self-efficacy

Asian American (n = 103) and non-Asian American college students (n = 121) estimated their subjective experience and emotional display in 24 hypothetical affect-eliciting situations. Each respondent also made the same estimations for an acquaintance. Both groups overestimated their own subjective experiences relative to those of their acquaintances and also overestimated their own undisplayed affect, suggesting that these basic self-acquaintance differences about emotions transcend cultural heritage. However, Asian Americans estimated that they would experience more socially undesirable affect than non-Asian Americans estimated that they would experience, and Asian Americans also estimated that they would display these less socially desirable emotions more. Asian Americans also scored higher on the Loss of Face Scale and displayed a greater tendency to evaluate their subjective experience from the perspective of another, as assessed by the Social Awareness Inventory. Additional analyses indicated that these measures of individual differences mediated ethnic differences in self-estimations of less socially desirable affect. Keywords: culture; emotion perception; self-other differences; loss of face; self-awareness

We investigated variables that may influence the generalization of a replacement mand in 3 young children with severe language delays. A multiple baseline design consisting of one stimulus class of manding opportunities that we arbitrarily divided into three categories (i.e., food, toys, and events) was used for each child. During baseline probes, all children manded mainly by reaching, grabbing, or leading. We then taught each child a replacement mand using a single member of the stimulus class. Acquisition of the replacement mand occurred under highly restricted conditions in a setting that was completely isolated from the generalization settings. Postacquisition probes revealed almost exclusive use of old manding forms. Subsequently, extinction of the old forms and reinforcement of the replacement mand were introduced in a sequential fashion. Two children manifested a substantial increase, and 1 child displayed a moderate increase in the occurrence of the replacement mand (i.e., generalization occurred). These results suggest that a differential reinforcement procedure can alter the probability of the occurrence of response class members across a variety of stimulus conditions. DESCRIPTORS: response class, language, differential reinforcement, generalization

trkC receptors, which serve critical functions during the development of the nervous system, are alternatively spliced to yield isoforms containing the catalytic tyrosine kinase domain (TK+) and truncated isoforms which lack this domain (TK-). To test for potential differences in their roles during early stages of neural development, TK+ and TK-isoforms were ectopically expressed in cultures of neural crest, the stem cell population that gives rise to the vast majority of the peripheral nervous system. NT-3 activation of ectopically expressed trkC TK+ receptors promoted both proliferation of neural crest cells and neuronal differentiation. Strikingly, the trkC TK- isoform was significantly more effective at promoting neuronal differentiation, but had no effect on proliferation. Furthermore, the trkC TK- response was dependent on a conserved receptor cytoplasmic domain and required the participation of the [p75.sup.NTR] neurotrophin receptor. Antibody-mediated receptor dimerization of TK+ receptors, but not TK- receptors, was sufficient to stimulate differentiation. These data identify a phenotypic response to activation of the trkC TK- receptor and demonstrate a functional interaction with [p75.sup.NTR], indicating there may be multiple trkC receptor-mediated systems guiding neuronal differentiation.

Sex differences and similarities among spouses on differentiation of self were evaluated for 108 heterosexual couples who completed the Differentiation of Self Inventory 2 of Skowron. Four scores on self-differentiation were assessed, emotional reactivity, emotion cutoff, 'I' position, and fusion with others. Significant sex differences were found on all subscales. Women tended to express their state of emotionality by engaging with their partners via emotional reactivity, whereas men tended to express their state of emotionality by disengaging from their partners. Women scored lower on adherence to their convictions or beliefs than their spouses. Moreover, the results were not supportive of similarities of self-differentiation among spouses as posited by Bowen.

Some children have developmental problems related to the determination of common characteristics within a certain group. A study was made to determine ways of improving their discriminating abilities of finding in-common qualities. Self-instructions were found to be effective in solving tests related to such cognitive functions. Sorting problems with two elements was generally harder than sorting those with only one common element.

Individuals do not necessarily choose spouses who share similar levels of differentiation of self. Using a combination of pseudocouple and Monte Carlo sampling methods, similarity measures revealed that actual couples were more similar than randomly formed couples on only the Spousal Intimacy scale of the Personal Authority in the Family System of Questionnaire. Low or near zero similarity measures were found in the other six scales.

Previous research has shown that evaluative organization of self-knowledge explains variance in self-esteem and mood beyond that accounted for by positive or negative content. Here, that model is applied to the changing self-perceptions of women in a life transition. In a sample of 120 older women who had relocated within the past year, evaluative differentiation of self-change - the tendency to perceive self-change very positively in some domains and very negatively in others - was associated with greater well-being among women whose positive domains were perceived to be important. People who perceive great improvement in at least one important domain of the self (despite sacrifice in others) may be more resilient during a life transition than those who experience the same average improvement spread evenly across domains. Having a few very important positive aspects of the self to fall back on may help to buffer the stress of a life transition.

Sex differences in recall and categorical organization of 180 children in Grades 2, 4, and 6 were investigated for a single-trial free-recall task. A memory task composed of 20 items from five conceptual categories was individually administered to each subject under standard instruction. Analysis suggested differential developmental trends for boys and girls. Significant sex differences in recall were obtained in Grade 6 only, with 36 boys showing better recall than 36 girls. An initial male developmental lag in clustering was evident in Grade 2, but no significant sex differences in Grade 4. By Grade 6 boys showed superior clustering. It is concluded that girls and boys show different developmental trends in categorical organization. The developmental trends in the pattern of sex differences in categorical organization obtained in this study are discussed in relation to patterns reported in previous studies.

Preschool children's ability to distinguish between pretense and reality was examined in 2 studies that adopted a modified version of the design used by P. L. Harris, E. Brown, M. Marriott, S. Whittall, and S. Harmer (1991) in which a pretend creature is assumed to hide inside a box. In Study 1, 19 4-year-olds participated in test conditions that closely followed Harris et al.'s procedures. In Study 2, 75 3- and 4-year-olds were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 emotionally colored pretense play scenarios that included 4 test conditions: an imaginary creature, invented by the adult or the child, whose affective value was either positive or negative. The results of both studies do not support Harris et al.'s interpretation of their data in terms of a breakdown of the distinction between pretense and reality.

If an activity during manipulative play is exploratory, it should, in contrast to other activity, be used differentially for objects that vary in novelty. In a study of 5-month-olds, different definitions o exploratory mouthing were tested, and results suggested that mouthing followed immediately by a look fulfilled some criteria for an exploratory activity. In the next study of 5- to 11-month-olds, mouthing with looks after and examining, a measure of visual-manipulative inspection, met the criteria for exploratory activity; other kinds of mouthing and visual-manipulatory activity did not. Exploratory mouthing decreased with age and examining increased. The exploratory function of mouthing apparently was not due to concurrent manual activity providing haptic information. The conclusion is that some activities are exploratory and information-gathering and other activities ar nonexploratory and serve other functions.

Awareness and evaluation of one's self and behavior is an important part of the development of toddlers. Such awareness and the ability to evaluate behavior is required before learning to regulate one's own behavior. The present study was designed to consider the proposal that toddlers who have not learned to see themselves as individuals with distinct characteristics that can be evaluated will not recognize themselves as the target of caretaker disapproval. They therefore will not experience negative emotions directed at the self (remorse, guilt, shame) or begin to self-regulate their behavior. It was predicted that development follows a specific course. First, the toddler recognizes the self as an individual physical entity (e.g. recognizes self in the mirror). Next the toddler develops the ability to evaluate objects and behavior against a standard (is able to label things as 'good,' 'pretty,' or 'yucky', for instance). Finally, the toddler is able to express self-evaluative emotions (such as being upset when caught breaking a rule). Mothers of 123 toddlers aged 14 to 40 months reported on the presence of 25 behaviors associated with the recognition of self. Statistical analysis showed that behaviors were grouped together in a sequence that confirmed the original proposal. (Consumer Summary produced by Reliance Medical Information, Inc.)

A conceptual framework is presented for disentangling the concepts of individuation and differentiation by defining the former as an individual developmental process and the later as a family level variable dealing with patterns of distance regulation. The framework is then used as a basis of identifying critical measurement issues. Finally, selected measures of individuation and differentiation are reviewed in order to illustrate the strengths and limitations of measurement efforts to date.

Details of research examining attachment, fear of intimacy and individuality of substance abusers who were undergoing treatment, are presented.

Murray Bowen's Family Systems Theory is considered by many to be the most thorough and thoughtful set of ideas that family therapy has created (Nichols & Schwartz, 1995). But does the literature support his concepts and ideas? This article reviewed eight empirical research articles published in the last decade or so in which Bowenian concepts were tested. The purpose was to determine whether there is any empirical support for Bowen's concepts of differentiation of self, triangulation, and fusion. Some of Bowen's notions were supported by empirical data and two valid and reliable instruments designed to test Bowenian concepts were created.

The researchers tested several propositions about the most important construct in M. Bowen's (1978) theory (M. Kerr & M. Bowen, 1988) of differentiation of self, using a Filipino sample. It was hypothesized that (a) differentiation is associated with less psychological distress, (b) the differentiation levels and psychological distress of parents predict those of their adult children, and (c) spouses report similar levels of differentiation. Results indicated that differentiation predicted both symptomatology and trait anxiety, and spouses' total differentiation scores covaried significantly. On the other hand, structural equation modeling failed to support the intergenerational hypotheses. Compared with E. Skowron and M. Friedlander's (1998) U.S. sample, the present participants (N = 306) reported less emotional reactivity, greater emotional cutoff, and a greater ability to take an 'I-position,' although total differentiation scores did not differ significantly. Taken together, the results suggest that differentiation is a meaningful construct for Filipinos, but the lack of support for the intergenerational hypotheses casts doubt on Bowen's theory about the transmission of differentiation and psychopathology.

Carruthers' 'mindreading is prior' model postulates one unitary mindreading mechanism working identically for self and other. While we agree about shared mindreading mechanisms, there is also evidence from neuroimaging and mentalizing about dissimilar others that suggest factors that differentially affect self-versus-other mentalizing. Such dissociations suggest greater complexity than the mindreading is prior model allows.

We argue that while it is a valuable contribution, Carruthers' model may be too restrictive to elaborate our understanding of the development of mindreading and metacognition, or to enrich out' knowledge of individual differences and psychopathology. To illustrate, we describe pertinent examples where there may be a critical interplay between primitive social-cognitive processes and emerging self-attributions.

Central to Hurley's argument is the position that imitation is 'automatic' and requires inhibition. The evidence for this is poor. Imitation is intentional, involves active comparison between self and other, and involves new learning to improve self-other likeness. Abnormal imitation behaviour may result from impaired learning rather than disinhibition. Mentalizing may be similarly effortful and dependent upon learning about others.

Sixty subjects (20 alcoholic inpatients, 20 outpatient alcoholics, and 20 surgical controls from two Veterans Administration hospitals) were tested on field independence-dependence (measured by the Rod-and-Frame Test), realistic/unrealistic self-expectations (on the Level of Aspiration Board), and degree of alcohol dependence (on the Alcohol Dependence Scale). Response bias and current intelligence were controlled. As predicted, alcoholic inpatients were more alcohol dependent than outpatients, both groups of alcoholics were found to be more field dependent and more unrealistic in their self-expectations than controls, and field dependence was related to unrealistic expectations. Patterns of differentiation and expectation were similar in both alcoholic groups. Results support the consistency of differentiation levels within clinical groups and the relationship between field dependence and unrealistic self-expectation.

This article explores the extent to which Hargeaves' and Lacey's differentiation-polarisation theory is applicable to setted comprehensive schools bearing in mind certain objections to the theory made by Quine. The research is based on an ethnographic study of a comprehensive school, located in the south of England, in which the pupils are streamed by sets after the first year. The sample of pupils studied are fourth years in the top, middle and bottom streams of the school. By using a variety of research methods to study the historical and current academic and behavioural values of the pupils, this paper suggests that the differentiation-polarisation theory holds fairly well, particularly in the second year. The research does not substantiate Quine's objections to the theory. The paper concludes by considering the implications of the theory for social class differentiation and other contemporary theories in the sociology of education.

This study examined 'trait' variables associated with high and low levels of expressed emotion in the parents of long-term stable schizophrenia outpatients. Self-descriptions collected from patients, their parents, and control participants matched to the parents were rated for levels of differentiation and integration, substantiality, relatedness, and self-criticism using established methods. The parents as a group did not differ from controls on any of the self-description variables. When parents were classified based on their expressed emotion status, those with low expressed emotion showed higher levels of differentiation and integration than those with high expressed emotion. Low expressed emotion parents were also lower on self-criticism. There was no difference between expressed emotion groups on substantiality or relatedness. These findings support the idea that high expressed emotion in parents of long-term stable outpatients may be a manifestation in part of relatively low levels of differentiation and integration of self in the parents. Furthermore, though patients as a group scored lower than parents on differentiation and integration and substantiality, patients' ratings on these two variables also correlated with those of their parents, suggesting that these variables are to some extent familially determined.