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Cocoa butter (CB) technological quality and financial value depend widely on the free fatty acids (FFA) content. Cocoa butter has to contain less than 1.75% free fatty acids (FFA, based on oleic acid) to be in compliance with the EU directive 2000/36/EC (2000) and needs to be free from off-flavours and rancidity from a sensory (taste, odour, colour) and technological point of view. Free fatty acids are carboxylic acids, generated from triglycerides via the hydrolysis of their ester bounds by enzymatic and/or chemical reactions. The present work reviews free fatty acids formation mechanisms in cocoa beans, the free fatty acids levels assay as well as possible reduction methods. Furthermore, the impact of high free fatty acids content on the technological and chemical qualities and on the health of consumer of cocoa derived products were described. The results highlighted that the free fatty acids formation in cocoa beans was ascribed to the endogenous and exogenous lipases activities. Excreted exogenous lipases by contaminated molds during poor post-harvest processing are most active for free fatty acids generation in cocoa beans. In addition, the germination, poor storage conditions such as high water activity and moisture content provoke high free fatty acids content in cocoa butter. Although alkalization, deodorization and other refining treatments are efficient methods for reduction of free fatty acids content, chocolate manufacturers recorded high losses in cocoa butter. It is important to eliminate the free fatty acids content of cocoa butter because excessive consumption of high- free fatty acids cocoa product induces pathologies.

Adjuevan is an Ivorian traditional fermented fish used as a condiment. However, the fermentation process and storage conditions may lead to the production of biogenic amines (BA) which can induce severe human toxicological effects. Thus, this study aimed to reveal the bacterial community diversity and the BA contents during the storage. Samples of adjuevan from the fish species Chloroscombrus chrysurus, Galeoides decadactylus, and Thunnus thynnus were collected from local producers, stored at ambient temperature (28-30 °C) and in a refrigerator (4 °C) over a period of 8 weeks. At 2-week intervals, BA were determined by HPLC and the bacterial communities analyzed using high-throughput sequencing (NGS) of the V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene. Results showed that histamine, cadaverine, putrescine, and tyramine were the major compounds. In adjuevan from T. thynnus, the level of histamine was over the maximum level of 200 mg/kg determined by Codex Alimentarius. For the other amines, no safety concerns are related. In total, 21 bacterial genera with a relative abundance ≥ 1% and belonging to 14 families and 5 phyla were detected. The Bacillaceae family was the most found at ambient temperature while Staphylococcaceae and Enterococcaceae were the most abundant in a refrigerator. The analysis of correlation showed that the increase of Lentibacillus leads to a decrease of the major BA at ambient temperature. On the contrary, the increase of Staphylococcus, Lactobacillus, Psychrobacter, Peptostreptococcus, and Fusobacterium leads to an increase of these biogenic compounds. Thus, Lentibacillus acted as BA-oxidizing bacteria while the others were found as BA-producing bacteria during adjuevan storage.

Aims: Free fatty acids (FFA) result from hydrolysis of cocoa butter triacylglycerides due to various abiotic and biotic factors. The resurgence of high FFA contents above 1.75% in cocoa beans depended on Ivorian geographical origin. High FFA contents have become a serious quality problem because they induced serious consequences for some beneficial properties of cocoa butter and chocolate. This study investigated the improvement of quality of Ivorian cocoa beans by reducing their FFA contents. Methodology: Samples: 240 cocoa beans batches were sampled from cocoa farmers of some big cocoa producing regions for their FFA contents analysis. Also, influence of primary post-harvest processing such as pod’s sanitary status, pod opening delay, fermentation duration and dry cocoa beans storage under various relative humidity (RH) ranged 80-90% on FFA’s formation of Ivorian cocoa beans was investigated. Data interpretations were performed according to the Fisher’s test. Results: Main results showed that dry cocoa beans recorded FFA content varying from 0.99 to 14% in function of the geographical origin. Beside, 53% of tested cocoa bean samples exhibited FFA content up to 1.75%. Poor sanitary status of pods and 7-days fermented cocoa beans recorded FFA content above 1.75%. Dry cocoa beans stored at RH above 85% promoted more the FFA’s formation (14%) than those stored under lower RH values. 53% of tested cocoa beans samples presented FFA contents up to 1.75%. Controlled primary post-harvest processing highlighted that poor sanitary status of pods, 7-days fermentation and storage of dry cocoa beans at RH above 85% lead to FFA content above 1.75%. Conclusion: So, in order to produce fermented and dried cocoa beans containing a suitable FFA content in the context of climate change, mitigation strategies need to integrate good crop conditions regarding postharvest processing and to improve beneficial ones.

Despite the centrality of staple grains for human well-being, both as a source of nutrients and of toxic ions, there is little understanding of where and how elements vary, and if there are particular elements that correlate. Here, for shop bought polished (white) rice, we comprehensively characterized trace (arsenic species, cadmium, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, rubidium and zinc) and macro-nutrients (calcium, chlorine, potassium, phosphorus and sulphur) for grain purchased in 18 countries, across four continents, a total of 1045 samples. This was to investigate if there were any major differences between geographic location and elemental content, and to observe if there were any patterns in elemental distribution. Greatest variation in the median was observed for the non-essential rubidium (15-fold) and arsenic species (fivefold). Rubidium was the highest in the Americas, lowest in Europe, while inorganic arsenic (iAs) and dimethylarsonic acid (DMA) were low for Africa and high in the South American and European continents. The highest concentrations of cadmium were found in Asian samples, and lowest in South America, with variation within these regions. At the extremes of individual counties, China had fivefold higher concentrations than the global median, while Tanzania was fourfold lower than this value. Calcium, potassium, molybdenum and phosphorus were the highest in European and lowest in African grain, though the fold-differences were relatively low, ~ 0.2, while iron was the highest in African grain and lowest in European, Asian and South American grain, with a ~ twofold difference. Selenium was also higher in Africa versus other regions, and copper, manganese and zinc were the highest in American grain. Factor analysis showed that copper, cadmium, molybdenum, rubidium and selenium were strongly associated together, and these element’s factor loadings were diametrically opposed to less tightly associated calcium, chlorine, manganese, potassium, phosphorus and sulphur. Stepwise additions linear region analysis was performed on log-transformed concentrations to investigate cadmium associations in more detail. Selenium was the greatest predictor of cadmium concentration, followed by molybdenum, accounting for over 50% of the contribution to the adjusted R2. Arsenic species were only weakly correlated with other elements. The implications for these findings with respect to dietary nutrition are discussed. Vietnamese rice was notable in being deficient in macro- and micro-nutrients while also being elevated in cadmium at a median of 0.02 mg/kg, with China though still having a median that is ~ 2.5-fold this concentration. These Chinese concentrations are of particular concern as the 75th percentile for China is 0.1 mg/kg, a value that triggers regulatory action for rice products.

Sotol is an alcoholic beverage obtained after the spontaneous fermentation of the sotol plant (Dasylirion spp), commonly known as a pineapple. However, the microorganisms and chemical changes invol...

Green, Andy J. et al., One of cadmium’s major exposure routes to humans is through rice consumption. The concentrations of cadmium in the global polished (white), market rice supply-chain were assessed in 2270 samples, purchased from retailers across 32 countries, encompassing 6 continents. It was found on a global basis that East Africa had the lowest cadmium with a median for both Malawi and Tanzania at 4.9 μg/kg, an order of magnitude lower than the highest country, China with a median at 69.3 μg/ kg. The Americas were typically low in cadmium, but the Indian sub-continent was universally elevated. In particular certain regions of Bangladesh had high cadmium, that when combined with the high daily consumption rate of rice of that country, leads to high cadmium exposures. Concentrations of cadmium were compared to the European Standard for polished rice of 200 μg/kg and 5% of the global supply-chain exceeded this threshold. For the stricter standard of 40 μg/kg for processed infant foods, for which rice can comprise up to 100% by composition (such as rice porridges, puffed rice cereal and cakes), 25% of rice would not be suitable for making pure rice baby foods. Given that rice is also elevated in inorganic arsenic, the only region of the world where both inorganic arsenic and cadmium were low in grain was East Africa.

Despite the centrality of staple grains for human well-being, both as a source of nutrients and of toxic ions, there is little understanding of where and how elements vary, and if there are particular elements that correlate. Here, for shop bought polished (white) rice we comprehensively characterize trace (arsenic species, cadmium, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, rubidium and zinc) and macro-nutrients (calcium, chlorine, potassium, phosphorus and sulphur) for grain purchased in 18 countries, across 4 continents, a total of 1045 samples, to investigate if there were any major differences between geographic location and elemental content, and to observe if there were any patterns in elemental distribution. Greatest variation in the median was observed for the non-essential rubidium (15-fold) and arsenic species (5-fold). Rubidium was highest in the Americas, lowest in Europe, while inorganic arsenic and dimethylarsonic acid (DMA) were low for Africa and high in the South American and European continents. Cadmium had the highest concentration in Asian samples and lowest in South America. Calcium, potassium, molybdenum and phosphorus, were highest in European and lowest in African grain, though the fold-differences were relatively low, ~ 0.2, while iron was highest in African grain and low in European, Asian and South American grain, with a ~ 2-fold difference. Selenium was also higher in Africa versus other regions, and copper, manganese and zinc where highest in American grain. Factor analysis showed that copper, cadmium, molybdenum, rubidium and selenium were strongly associated together, and these element’s factor loadings were diametrically opposed to less tightly associated calcium, chlorine, manganese, potassium, phosphorus and sulphur. Stepwise additions linear region analysis was performed on log transformed concentrations to investigate cadmium associations in more detail. Selenium was the greatest predictor of cadmium concentration, followed by molybdenum, accounting for over 50% of the contribution to the adjusted R2. Arsenic species were only weakly correlated with other elements. The implications for these findings with respect to dietary nutrition are discussed.

Les mycotoxines sont responsables de divers effets toxiques, notamment l'induction de cancers et des altérations du tube digestif, rénales, sanguines et nerveuses chez les animaux et les Hommes. Un quart des cultures vivrières mondiales sont affectées par des moisissures productrices de mycotoxines. Le problème des mycotoxines est particulièrement important pour la santé humaine et animale dans les zones tropicales chaudes et humides. Du fait de la mondialisation, l’échange commercial des denrées alimentaires a nécessité la mise en place d’un système de normes sanitaires qui régissent l’acceptation des aliments par les pays importateurs. Alors que les pays développés disposent de nombreuses réglementations sur les mycotoxines et d'une infrastructure bien développée pour faire respecter les normes, les habitants des pays en développement ne sont pas protégés par la surveillance de la qualité des aliments et l'application de normes de sécurité dans leur pays car les coûts d'échantillonnage et d'analyse sont trop importants. Mots clés : mycotoxines, grains, intoxication, import/export, lutte biologique et physique

The antifungal and antiaflatoxinogenic activities of the essential oils (EOs) from the leaves of

Cocoa quality depends on several parameters, such as cocoa variety, environmental growth conditions, cultivation technique, and post-harvest treatments applied to coca beans. In this work, we studied the impact of cocoa post-harvest processing on both microbial communities structure and volatile composition. Cocoa beans samples were fermented in wooden boxes in Ivory Coast at different time intervals with turning and without turning, and derived from pods stored for two different duration times. Cocoa beans were analyzed using a molecular fingerprinting method (PCR-DGGE) in order to detect variations in microbial communities' structure; this global analysis was coupled to SPME-GC-MS for assessing cocoa volatile profiles. The results showed that the main parameter that influenced microbial communities structure was fermentation time, followed by turning, whereas, pods storage duration had a minor impact. Similar results were obtained for aromatic profile, except for pods storage duration that significantly affected volatile compound production. Global statistical analysis using Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA), showed the relationship between microbial communities and volatile composition. Furthermore, this study allowed the identification of discriminating microbial and chemical markers of cocoa post-harvest processing.

Food safety and quality is a major political topic due to numbers of deaths and hospitalizations all over the world due to food contamination, due to the increasing concern of consumers with public health related issues, due to increasing complexity of internationalization of food chains, along with the stronger sanitary standards set for international trade. Many constraints can explain the delays in the establishment of measures to prevent and control of food contaminants throughout the food value chains. Therefore, the availability of simplified tools that can be used to mitigate food safety hazards in low- and middle-income countries is a high priority internationally. The proposal addressed in this manuscript is to use the existing knowledge in local universities, private companies, citizen's organizations and to translate its proposals and scientific/technical advices to the national authorities, in a low cost manner. This translation is done by what is described here as Collective Expertise. Collective Expertise, can be a very powerful way to develop local strategies to solve problems and face the challenges of food safety and food security.

The occurrence of ochratoxin A (OTA) and OTA-producing fungi in cocoa beans has been previously reported to be linked to harvest and post-harvest treatment conditions. The aim of this study was to identify OTA-producing fungi during harvest, fermentation, drying and storage of cocoa beans from two farms located in the most important cocoa-producing region in Mexico, and their relationship with OTA levels of contamination. A high contamination of ochratoxigenic fungi was observed in drying (78.4 % ± 13.6) and storage (70.3 % ± 3.2) steps of cocoa samples from farm A. In farm B, the wash step of cocoa beans after fermentation reduced pulp residues and consequently the OTA-producing fungi infection during drying (12.7 % ± 5.8) and storage (37 % ± 10.4) steps were diminished. The main OTA-producing strain isolated from Malt Extract Agar (MEA) growth medium was Aspergillus carbonarius (14307.5 µg/kg). The presence of ochratoxigenic species was correlated to high levels of OTA measured in cocoa beans during storage in both farm A and B (304.6 ± 15.3 and 11.3 ± 0.5 µg/kg, respectively), and in fresh cocoa beans from farm B (22.2 ± 3.5 µg/kg). This study reports for the first time OTA content and ochratoxigenic species during cocoa process in Mexico. This allowed the identification and evaluation of the sanitary risks linked to Mexican cocoa production.

In order to phenotypically characterized Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains isolated from sorghum beer and palm wines for a possible selection of a starter culture, 30 strains were tested for killer activity, temperature resistance, ethanol tolerance, carbohydrate fermentation, enzyme profile and sorghum wort fermentation. Of the tested strains, three showed a killer profile, while four showed a neutral profile and 23 were found to be sensitive to K2 toxin. Temperatures of 40 °C and 44 °C allowed to distinguish strains into four thermal groups with only three strains may grow at 44 °C. Almost tested strains were tolerant to 5% ethanol with viability rates up to 73%. But at 10% and 15% ethanol, respectively 18 and 7 strains were tolerant. Carbohydrate fermentation revealed 13 fermentation profiles, including one typical and 12 atypical profiles. The typical profile strains (16.13% of the strains) fermented glucose, galactose, fructose, sucrose, maltose, trehalose and raffinose. Most of the strains secreted lipases (mainly esterase and esterase-lipase), proteases (mainly valine and cysteine arylamidase, chrymotrypsin) and phosphatases (mainly acid phosphatase and naphthol phosphohydrolase). On contrary, only five strains isolated from sorghum beer exhibited glucosidase activity, mainly α-glucosidase. The analyse of fermented sorghum wort revealed that fermentative performance is strain dependent. Furthermore, the Hierarchical Cluster Analysis showed that the strains were separated in three distinct clusters with the strains from sorghum beer clustered separately.

The objective of this study was to identify the dominant bacterial flora linked to the hygiene of dried and smoked fish in different geographical locations and to determine the presence of pesticide residues on the processed fish. Fish species were listed and collected. The bacterial ecology of dried and smoked fish from the northern zone of Cameroon was probed using a molecular technique employing variable regions of 16S rDNA profiles generated by PCR-DGGE (Polymerase Chain Reaction-Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis). The bacterial species were obtained by sequencing the PCR-DGGE bands and the pesticide residues by Chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS / MS), tested on 11 fish samples. Fifty three percent of the fish were smoked. Three types of pesticides have been identified on the dried fish samples. Among them, there were Cypermethrin (15 to 3600 µg/kg), Chlorpyrifos (19 to 8800 µg/kg) and Profenophos (62 to 92 µg/kg). The analysis of 16S rDNA profile and DNA sequencing revealed the presence of 32 bacterial species grouped into 22 genera. Dried fish were the most contaminated. Species such as Vagococcus carniphilus, Kurthia gibsonii, Lysinibacillus endophyticus, Macrococcus caseolyticus and Bacillus atrophaeus were present in the samples from all the locations. On a general note, the fish samples are of poor microbiological and sanitary quality.

Genetically, engineered probiotic organisms are envisioned as the next new age functional products. The concerted ability of the engineered probiotic strains designed to recognize the target, synthesize, and deliver biomolecules at a specific site has made them popular biotherapeutics. Several evidences discussed in this chapter confirm the potential application of genetically modified probiotic strains in numerous conditions ranging from irritable bowel syndrome to hypertension to phenylketonurea to tumor therapy to antiinfectives. In the future, the tools of Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats can be further modified to develop a diverse range of designer probiotic strains by swapping the promoter and therapeutics genes to target several other disease biomarkers and treatments, respectively. Considering the growing application of probiotics as biotherapeutics, the chapter also discusses some of the emerging techniques for microencapsulation of probiotic strains.

International audience; Aflatoxins (AFs) are polyketide-derived metabolites produced by fungi on a wide range of crops (cereals, oilseeds, tree nuts, spices, dried fruits, etc.), both in the field and the post-harvest. As chemical stable molecules, resistant to conventional thermal or technological processes, they will pass through the whole food or feed supply chain to the final processed products. There are more than 20 known AFs and derivatives, yet the most hazardous AFs include the four naturally-occurring AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2, and the hydroxylated metabolites of AFB1 and AFB2, and AFM1 and AFM2, which are produced through biotransformation in the liver and excreted in the milk of humans and mammals. AFs are known for their high acute and chronic toxicity to both humans and animals, and are considered among the most dangerous mycotoxins with carcinogenic, hepatotoxic, immunotoxic, teratogenic and mutagenic effects. AFB1 is the most prevalent and toxic aflatoxin, and is classified as a Group 1 human carcinogens. The intake of high amounts of AFs can cause acute intoxication (aflatoxicosis) associated with jaundice, vomiting, hemorrhages, abdominal pain, acute liver failure, problems with absorption of nutrients, and can be lethal. Reported outbreaks in western India (1974) and in Kenya (2004) caused the death of 106 and 125 people, respectively. Chronic exposure to low levels of AFs is associated with high risk of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), immunosuppression, teratogenic and mutagenic effects, reduction of nutrient absorption, child stunting, detrimental effects in the endocrinal system, and liver failure. More than five billion people worldwide are at risk of chronic exposure to AFs through contaminated foods. Humans’ exposure to AFs mainly occurs by direct intake of contaminated foods of vegetal or animal origin. Hence, the presence of AFs in foodstuff and feedstuff is a public health issue associated with detrimental effects in economy. In addition, commodities are generally contaminated by several mycotoxins, and this co-occurrence may result in a greater toxicity to humans caused by the possible additive or synergistic effects of these compounds. The main aflatoxin-producing fungi belong to Aspergillus section Flavi of the Circumdati subgenus, and only five AF producers do not belong to this section, A. ochraceoroseus, A. rambellii (A. section Ochraceorosei), A. astellatus, A. olivicola, and A. venezuelensis (A. section Nidulantes). The aim of the present chapter is to describe the characteristics of the aflatoxigenic Aspergillus section Flavi species isolated from food or feed, and to address the biodiversity according to food matrices and geographic areas.

Lactoperoxidase system (LPOS) was incorporated into chitosan solutions (0.5, 1, and 1.5%) to protect mangoes against two strains of fungi. Coating solutions effectiveness in vitro (in Petri dish) and in vivo (on mango) were studied on fungal (Phomopsis sp. RP257 and Pestalotiopsis sp.) growth isolated from mango cv Amelie . In vitro, chitosan concentration at least 1% containing or not LPOS effectively inhibited Pestalotiopsis sp. growth at 100%. Presence of LPOS or Lactoperoxydase system with iodine (LPOSI) in chitosan at 0.5% increased the percentage of inhibition from 26 to 93%. Edible films with LPOS inhibited Phomopsis sp. RP257 particularly when LPOS was incorporated in chitosan concentrations of 1 and 1.5%. Iodine did not influenced antifungal activity of LPOS against Pestalotiopsis sp. but decreased activity antifungal toward Phomopsis sp. RP257. The properties (water vapor permeability and mechanical properties) of chitosan films were not significantly changed by the incorporation of the enzyme system. in vivo condition, chitosan coating at 1 and 1.5% with or without enzyme system was sufficient to inhibit totally (100%) Pestalotiopsis sp. and was 60% efficient against Phomopsis sp. with chitosan only at 1 and 1.5%. However, when coating solution mainly at 1 and 1.5% was enhanced by LPOS with or without iodine, it inhibited totally (100%) Phomopsis sp. RP257. The presence of iodine slightly reduced antifungal activity against Phomopsis sp. RP257.

A simple, fast and ecological analytical method using a semi-automatic fat extractor and HPLC-FLD (fluorescence detection) for determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon markers i.e. benzo(a)anthracene (BaA), chrysene (Chr), benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) and benzo(b)fluoranthene (BbF) in cocoa butter has been validated. Validation's procedure performed out in concordance with French standard NF V03-110 (2010) was based on existing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) determination methods in various smoked foodstuffs and edible vegetable oils. Determination of correlation coefficients for specific PAHs ranged from 0.9992 to 0.9998. Respective values of limits of detection were 0.010, 0.011, 0.033 and 0.029 μg kg−1 and those of quantification were 0.035, 0.038, 0.111 and 0.098 μg kg−1 for BaA, Chr, BbF and BaP. Both values of repeatability and intermediary precision tests coefficients of variation were less than 5%. Recovery scores of four PAH markers matched EU standard 836/2011 recommendations. Sum of four PAH markers (BaA, Chr, BbF, BaP) contents varied from 5.42 ± 0.58 to 11.37 ± 0.01 μg kg−1 whereas those of BaP was comprised between 0.26 ± 0.00 and 1.75 ± 0.13 μg kg−1 in 20 cocoa butter samples extracted from raw cocoa bean stored at Ivorian cocoa farmer levels.