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Spatial memory allows animals to retain information regarding the location, distribution, and quality of feeding sites to optimize foraging decisions. Western gorillas inhabit a complex environment with spatiotemporal fluctuations of resource availability, prefer fruits when available, and travel long distances to reach them. Here, we examined movement patterns-such as linearity, distance, and speed of traveling-to assess whether gorillas optimize travel when reaching out-of-sight valued resources. Our results show that gorillas travel patterns are affected by the activity they perform next, the type of food they feed on, and their preference level to specific fruits, suggesting they are able to optimize foraging based on spatial knowledge of their resources. Additionally, gorillas left in the direction of the next resource as soon as they started traveling and decelerated before approaching food resources, as evidence that they have a representation of their exact locations. Moreover, home range familiarity did not influence gorillas' movement patterns, as travel linearity in the core and periphery did not differ, suggesting that they may not depend wholly on a network of paths to navigate their habitat. These results show some overlap with chimpanzees' spatial abilities. Differences between the two ape species exist, however, potentially reflecting more their differences in diet (degree of frugivory) rather than their cognitive abilities. Further studies should focus on determining whether gorillas are able to use shortcuts and/or approach the same goal from multiple directions to better identify the spatial abilities used by this species.

Females of several catarrhine primate species exhibit exaggerated sexual swellings that change in size and coloration during the menstrual cycle and, in some species, gestation. Although their function remains under debate, studies indicate that swellings may contain information males could use to discern ovulation and the probability that a cycle will be conceptive. Here we combine visual ratings of swellings with hormonal data for a group of Sanje mangabeys (18 adult, 3 adolescent females) to determine if their swellings provide reliable information on female fertility. In all cases where ovulation was detected (N = 7), it occurred during maximum tumescence, and in 83.3% during the first two days of the “shiny phase,” a period during maximum tumescence when the swelling was brightest. There were no significant differences in maximum tumescence and shiny phase duration among cycles of different probability of conception, although there was a trend toward conceptive cycles exhibiting shorter shiny phases than nonconceptive ones. Only 25% (N = 4) of postconceptive swellings developed the shiny phase, and adolescents displayed the longest maximum tumescence and shiny phases. The conspicuous nature of the shiny phase and the frequent overlap between its onset and ovulation suggest that its presence serves as a general signal of ovulation and that the cycle has a high probability of being conceptive. It also suggests that swellings in some Sanje mangabeys are more accurate signals of fertility than in other primates. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s10764-017-9961-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Spatial memory allows animals to retain information regarding the location, distribution, and quality of feeding sites to optimize foraging decisions. Western gorillas inhabit a complex environment with spatiotemporal fluctuations of resource availability, prefer fruits when available, and travel long distances to reach them. Here, we examined movement patterns-such as linearity, distance, and speed of traveling-to assess whether gorillas optimize travel when reaching out-of-sight valued resources. Our results show that gorillas travel patterns are affected by the activity they perform next, the type of food they feed on, and their preference level to specific fruits, suggesting they are able to optimize foraging based on spatial knowledge of their resources. Additionally, gorillas left in the direction of the next resource as soon as they started traveling and decelerated before approaching food resources, as evidence that they have a representation of their exact locations. Moreover, home range familiarity did not influence gorillas' movement patterns, as travel linearity in the core and periphery did not differ, suggesting that they may not depend wholly on a network of paths to navigate their habitat. These results show some overlap with chimpanzees' spatial abilities. Differences between the two ape species exist, however, potentially reflecting more their differences in diet (degree of frugivory) rather than their cognitive abilities. Further studies should focus on determining whether gorillas are able to use shortcuts and/or approach the same goal from multiple directions to better identify the spatial abilities used by this species.

The use of loud vocal signals to reduce distance among separated social partners is well documented in many species; however, the underlying mechanisms by which the reduction of spacing occurs and how they differ across species remain unclear. Western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) offer an opportunity to investigate these issues because their vocal repertoire includes a loud, long-distance call (i.e., hoot series) that is potentially used in within-group communication, whereas mountain gorillas use an identical call exclusively during intergroup encounters. First, we tested whether the hoot series functions as a contact/separation call. Second, we examined which individuals were more likely to reply and which party was more responsible for decreasing distance to identify the underlying mechanisms and cognitive implications of hoot series. We collected behavioral, spatial, and acoustic data on five adult gorillas over 15 months at the Mondika Research Center (Republic of Congo and CAR). Hoot series are individually distinct calls and given by both male and female gorillas when separated from each other. Following hooting, the distance between separated group members decreased significantly; thus we concluded that western gorillas use this call to reestablish group cohesion. The way in which proximity was achieved depended upon listeners replying or not to the caller. Replies may indicate a conflict between callers about intended travel direction, with vocal interchanges serving to negotiate a consensus. Although the acoustic features of vocal signals are highly constrained in closely related species, our results demonstrate that the function and usage of particular calls can be flexible. Am J Phys Anthropol 155:379–391, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

An accurate description of reproductive characteristics and ovarian endocrinology is necessary to address questions about the reproductive strategies and life history of a species and for meaningful, cross species analyses. Here we used analysis of fecal estradiol (fE) and behavioral observations to determine for the first time the reproductive characteristics and endocrinology of a wild group (N = 18 adult and 3 adolescent females) of Sanje mangabeys (Cercocebus sanjei). The study was conducted in the Udzungwa Mountains National Park, Tanzania, from October 2008 through September 2010. Average cycle length (±SD) was 29.3 ± 3.2 days in adults and 51.4 ± 5.5 days in adolescents. Menses appeared within 5.1 ± 2.1 days in adults and 4.8 ± 0.3 days in adolescents after the end of maximum tumescence, and lasted 6.7 ± 3.1 and 10.3 ± 5.0 days, respectively. Infant death tended to reduce the number of cycles to conception (4.3 ± 1.5 cycles after a surviving infant vs. 2.6 ± 1.0 cycles after infant death). Adolescents cycled for at least 16 months without conceiving. Implantation bleeding began 17.5 ± 0.7 days from the onset of detumescence, and lasted 10.0 ± 1.4 days. Gestation length averaged 171.8 ± 3.4 days. Postpartum amenorrhea lasted 6.7 ± 2.3 months while females whose infants had died resumed cycling within 14.3 ± 5.9 days. The interbirth interval after a surviving infant averaged 20.0 ± 4.3 months. These reproductive characteristics of the Sanje mangabey resembled those of other mangabeys and related cercopithecines, with the exception of an earlier onset and longer duration of menstruation and implantation bleeding. Further information on the physiology of the Sanje mangabey is needed to clarify what factors may cause the unusual characteristics of both, their menses and implantation bleeding. Am. J. Primatol. 76:1163–1174, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

To understand the evolutionary histories and conservation potential of wild animal species it is useful to assess whether taxa are genetically structured into different populations and identify the underlying factors responsible for any clustering. Landscape features such as rivers may influence genetic population structure, and analysis of structure by sex can further reveal effects of sex-specific dispersal. Using microsatellite genotypes obtained from noninvasively collected fecal samples we investigated the population structure of 261 western lowland gorillas (WLGs) (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) from seven locations spanning an approximately 37,000 km2 region of mainly continuous rain forest within Central African Republic (CAR), Republic of Congo and Cameroon. We found our sample to consist of two or three significantly differentiated clusters. The boundaries of the clusters coincided with courses of major rivers. Moreover, geographic distance detoured around rivers better-explained variation in genetic distance than straight line distance. Together these results suggest that major rivers in our study area play an important role in directing WLG gene flow. The number of clusters did not change when males and females were analyzed separately, indicating a lack of greater philopatry in WLG females than males at this scale. Am. J. Primatol. 76:868–878, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Objective To assess which client events should be considered reportable and preventable in home care (HC) settings in the opinion of HC safety experts. Background Patient safety in acute care settings has been well documented; however, there are limited data about this issue in HC. While many organizations collect information about ‘incidents’, there are no standards for reporting and it is challenging to compare incident rates among organizations. Design A 29-item electronic survey that included potential HC safety issues was used in a two-round Delphi study. Setting and Participants Twenty-four pan-Canadian HC safety experts participated in an electronic survey. Main Outcome Measures Perceived reportability and preventability of patient safety events, HC. Results The events that were perceived as being most reportable and preventable included the following: a serious injury related to inappropriate client service plan (e.g. incomplete/inaccurate assessments, poor care plan design, flawed implementation); an adverse reaction requiring emergency room visit or hospitalization related to a medication-related event; a catheter-site infection (e.g. a new peritoneal dialysis infection or peritonitis); any serious event related to care or services that are contrary to current professional or other practice standards (e.g. incorrect treatment regimen, theft, retention of a foreign object in a wound, individual practicing outside scope or competence). Conclusion These data represent an important step in the development and validation of standard metrics about client safety in HC. The results address an expanding area of health services where there is a need to improve standardization and reporting.

Aim This integrative study on safety in home care provides a synopsis of evidence in the Canadian and international literature. The objectives of this study were to: (i) develop/test a comprehensive search strategy to locate the literature on harmful incidents (previously called adverse events (AEs)) in the home care environment to track emerging evidence; (ii) determine what has been documented about AEs in the home care setting; and (iii) catalogue definitions of safety in home care by analysis of reported/published definitions. Methods The review was characterised by a process of mapping and categorising existing literature in practice, health services and policy literature. Methods included a thorough search strategy determined by time/scope constraints, quality assessment of study sets relevant to design and graphic/tabular representation of the synthesis. This multi-step, iterative process used an explicit search and retrieval strategy based on Cochrane and Joanna Briggs Institute methodologies. A modified Problem, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome template was used to design the search. To facilitate concept clarification, key definitions relevant to patient safety and AEs in home care were catalogued. Results Multiple runs on searches were performed for sensitivity and specificity using the Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies methodology developed by the Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health and additional other approaches. Ninety-two research studies published from 1993 to 2010 and representing 14 countries (the majority North American) met the inclusion criteria (i.e. addressing AEs within the context of home care). Studies varied in scope from one home healthcare agency/site to nationwide investigations that involved more than five million participants. Quantitative research methods included experimental, descriptive and retrospective designs. Qualitative research methods included focus groups, interviews and consensus workshops. The nature of AEs was categorised as types of patient injury/harm related to an AE, caregiver instigated injury/harm and organisational/services/staff injury/harm. Conclusions There is an emerging evidence base about safety in home care. A predominant theme was the lack of conceptual clarity with the terms patient safety and AEs in the home care environment. An important finding was that innovative strategies/tools appear in the grey or peer-review literature as quality initiatives with/without evaluation elements. Traditionally, we do not concentrate heavily on the grey literature, but to advance the field, it may be necessary to place more emphasis on this source. A glaring limitation was the paucity of research on the occurrence of AEs and a lack of quality of research that documents prevalence estimates/incidence rates. Interventional research to evaluate risk reduction strategies was very limited and will advance only when tracking and documentation of various AEs improves.

The occurrence of adverse events (AEs) in care settings is a patient safety concern that has significant consequences across healthcare systems. Patient safety problems have been well documented in acute care settings; however, similar data for clients in home care (HC) settings in Canada are limited. The purpose of this Canadian study was to investigate AEs in HC, specifically those associated with hospitalization or detected through the Resident Assessment Instrument for Home Care (RAI-HC).A retrospective cohort design was used. The cohort consisted of HC clients from the provinces of Nova Scotia, Ontario, British Columbia and the Winnipeg Regional Health Authority.The overall incidence rate of AEs associated with hospitalization ranged from 6% to 9%. The incidence rate of AEs determined from the RAI-HC was 4%. Injurious falls, injuries from other than fall and medication-related events were the most frequent AEs associated with hospitalization, whereas new caregiver distress was the most frequent AE identified through the RAI-HC.The incidence of AEs from all sources of data ranged from 4% to 9%. More resources are needed to target strategies for addressing safety risks in HC in a broader context. Tools such as the RAI-HC and its Clinical Assessment Protocols, already available in Canada, could be very useful in the assessment and management of HC clients who are at safety risk.

Despite considerable interest in the vocal communication of non-human primates and its possible relevance to theories of language evolution, we know surprisingly little about how vocal communication varies between closely related species inhabiting differing environments. Here, we provide the first quantitative description of the vocal repertoire, calling rates, and call usage in wild western gorillas and compare it to the previous work on mountain gorilla vocal behavior. During 1572 h of focal follows (n = 533), we collected behavioral data on and recorded vocalizations (n = 2163) of eight individuals in one group at Mondika Research Center (Republic of Congo). We supplemented these data with opportunistic recordings of an additional adult male in a second group. We used discriminant function analysis to test how well calls can be categorized by their acoustic structure and used behavioral data to determine the typical usage of western gorilla call types. The vocal repertoire comprised of 17 call types. Twelve of 17 call types were given primarily in a single context. Our results were similar to previous studies of mountain gorillas in that grunts, and grumbles were used most frequently and the silverback male vocalized more frequently than other group members. However, compared to mountain gorillas, western gorillas used an additional call type (sex-whinny), used a second call type (hoot series) in a completely different context and by all age–sex classes, and used many more call types in a more context-specific fashion. Our study suggests that although vocal production is highly constrained by morphology and phylogeny, differing social and ecological conditions can yield differences in the use and function of calls, even between two closely related species such as western and mountain gorillas.

Usability evaluations are necessary to determine the feasibility of nurses' interactions with computerized clinical decision-support systems. Limitations and challenges of operations that inhibit or facilitate utilization in clinical practice can be identified. This study provided nurses with mobile information terminals, PDAs and tablet PCs, to improve point-of-care access to information. The purpose of this study was to determine usability issues associated with point-of-care technology. Eleven nurses were self-selected. Nurses were videotaped and audiotaped completing four tasks, including setting up the device and three resource search exercises. A research team member completed a usability checklist. Completion times for each task, success rate, and challenges experienced were documented. Four participants completed all tasks, with an average time of 3 minutes 22 seconds. Three participants were unable to complete any of the three tasks. Navigating within resources caused the greatest occurrence of deviations with 39 issues among all participants. Results of the usability evaluation suggest that nurses require a device that (1) is manageable to navigate and (2) utilizes a user-friendly interface, such as a one-time log-in system. Usability testing can be helpful to organizations as they document issues to be cognizant of during the implementation process, increasing the potential for successful implementation and sustained usability.

Examining seasonal mortality patterns can yield insights into the drivers of mortality and thus potential selection pressures acting on individuals in different environments. We compiled adult and juvenile mortality data from nine wild non-human primate taxa to investigate the role of seasonality in patterns of mortality and address the following questions: Is mortality highly seasonal across species? Does greater environmental seasonality lead to more seasonal mortality patterns? If mortality is seasonal, is it higher during wet seasons or during periods of food scarcity? and Do folivores show less seasonal mortality than frugivores? We found seasonal mortality patterns in five of nine taxa, and mortality was more often tied to wet seasons than food-scarce periods, a relationship that may be driven by disease. Controlling for phylogeny, we found a positive relationship between the degree of environmental seasonality and mortality, with folivores exhibiting more seasonal mortality than frugivores. These results suggest that mortality patterns are influenced both by diet and degree of environmental seasonality. Applied to a wider array of taxa, analyses of seasonal mortality patterns may aid understanding of life-history evolution and selection pressures acting across a broad spectrum of environments and spatial and temporal scales.

Aims. To characterise the nursing practices of vital signs collection and documentation in a general internal medicine environment to inform strategies for improving workflow design. Background. Clinical workflow analysis is critical to identify barriers and opportunities in current processes. Analysis can guide the design and development of novel technological solutions to produce greater efficiencies and effectiveness in healthcare delivery. Research surrounding vital signs documentation workflow in general internal medicine environments has received very little attention making it difficult to compare the effectiveness of new technologies. Design. Qualitative ethnographic analyses and quantitative time–motion study were conducted. Methods. Workflows of 24 nurses at three hospitals in five general internal medicine environments were captured, and timeliness of vital signs assessment and documentation was measured. Results. Clinical assessment of vital signs was consistent, but the documentation process was highly variable within groups and between hospitals. Two themes characterised workflow barriers surrounding point-of-care documentation. First, a lack of standardised documentation methods for vital signs resulted in higher rates of transcription, increasing not only the likelihood of errors but delays in recording and accessibility of information. Second, despite advancements in electronic documentation systems, the observed system was not conducive to point-of-care documentation. Average electronic documentation was significantly longer than paper documentation. Nurses developed ad hoc workarounds that were inefficient and undermined the intent of electronic documentation. Conclusion. We have identified barriers and opportunities to improve the efficiency of nursing vital signs documentation. Changes in technology, workflows and environmental design allow for significant improvements and deserve further exploration. Relevance to clinical practice. Attention to clinical practice and environments can improve the workflow of prompt vital signs documentation and increase clinical productivity and timeliness of information for clinical decisions, as well as minimising transcription errors leading to safer patient care.

almost j., doran d.m., mcgillis hall l. & spence laschinger h.k. (2010) Journal of Nursing Management 18, 981–992 Antecedents and consequences of intra-group conflict among nurses Aim To test a theoretical model linking selected antecedent variables to intra-group conflict among nurses, and subsequently conflict management style, job stress and job satisfaction. Background A contributing factor to the nursing shortage is job dissatisfaction as a result of conflict among nurses. To develop strategies to reduce conflict, research is needed to understand the causes and outcomes of conflict in nursing work environments. Method A predictive, non-experimental design was used in a random sample of 277 acute care nurses. Structural equation modelling was used to analyse the hypothesised model. Results Nurses’ core self-evaluations, complexity of care and relationships with managers and nursing colleagues influenced their perceived level of conflict. Conflict management style partially mediated the relationship between conflict and job satisfaction. Job stress had a direct effect on job satisfaction and core self-evaluation had a direct effect on job stress. Conclusion Conflict and its associated outcomes is a complex process, affected by dispositional, contextual and interpersonal factors. How nurses manage conflict may not prevent the negative effects of conflict, however, learning to manage conflict using collaboration and accommodation may help nurses experience greater job satisfaction. Implications for nursing management Strategies to manage and reduce conflict include building interactional justice practices and positive interpersonal relationships.

Variations in nursing care have been observed, affecting patient outcomes and quality of care. Case-based reasoners that benchmark for patient indicators can reduce variation through decision support. This study evaluated and validated a case-based reasoning application to establish benchmarks for nursing-sensitive patient outcomes of pain, fatigue, and toilet use, using patient characteristic variables for generating similar cases. Three graduate nursing students participated. Each ranked 25 patient cases using demographics of age, sex, diagnosis, and comorbidities against 10 patients from a database. Participant judgments of case similarity were compared with the case-based reasoning system. Feature weights for each indicator were adjusted to make the case-based reasoning system's similarity ranking correspond more closely to participant judgment. Small differences were noted between initial weights and weights generated from participants. For example, initial weight for comorbidities was 0.35, whereas weights generated by participants for pain, fatigue, and toilet use were 0.49, 0.42, and 0.48, respectively. For the same outcomes, the initial weight for sex was 0.15, but weights generated by the participants were 0.025, 0.002, and 0.000, respectively. Refinement of the case-based reasoning tool established valid benchmarks for patient outcomes in relation to participants and assisted in point-of-care decision making.

Purpose: To evaluate the usability of mobile information terminals, such as personal digital assistants (PDAs) or Tablet personal computers, to improve access to information resources for nurses and to explore the relationship between PDA or Tablet-supported information resources and outcomes. Background: The authors evaluated an initiative of the Nursing Secretariat, Ontario Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care, which provided nurses with PDAs and Tablet PCs, to enable Internet access to information resources. Nurses had access to drug and medical reference information, best practice guidelines (BPGs), and to abstracts of recent research studies. Method: The authors took place over a 12-month period. Diffusion of Innovation theory and the Promoting Action on Research Implementation in Health Services (PARIHS) model guided the selection of variables for study. A longitudinal design involving questionnaires was used to evaluate the impact of the mobile technologies on barriers to research utilization, perceived quality of care, and on nurses’ job satisfaction. The setting was 29 acute care, long-term care, home care, and correctional organizations in Ontario, Canada. The sample consisted of 488 frontline-nurses. Results: Nurses most frequently consulted drug and medical reference information, Google, and Nursing PLUS. Overall, nurses were most satisfied with the Registered Nurses Association of Ontario (RNAO) BPGs and rated the RNAO BPGs as the easiest resource to use. Among the PDA and Tablet users, there was a significant improvement in research awareness/values, and in communication of research. There was also, for the PDA users only, a significant improvement over time in perceived quality of care and job satisfaction, but primarily in long-term care settings. Implications: It is feasible to provide nurses with access to evidence-based practice resources via mobile information technologies to reduce the barriers to research utilization.

Aim: This paper is a report of the results of a review of the literature conducted with the goal of determining how nurses' clinical uncertainty has been conceptualized in the nursing literature. Background: Although existing research has advanced the body of knowledge regarding the concept of uncertainty in decision-making, this has been largely from physicians' viewpoints and from patients' perspectives (patients' uncertainty). Understanding how nurses' experience and act on uncertainty remains relatively unreported. Method: A search of Medline, CINAHL, and PubMed databases was conducted to retrieve literature published from 1990 to 2007. The question guiding the literature review was: How has nurses' clinical uncertainty been conceptualized in nursing literature? Findings: Little exploration has been done of nurses' experience of uncertainty in practice. Many investigators have not theorized about the uncertainty in their studies, but have described nurses' uncertainty in the context of clinical decision-making. The findings from these studies indicated that unfamiliarity with the aspects of patient care is a source of uncertainty, and nurses tended to rely on heuristics or on the expertise of colleagues as sources of information for practice decisions. Expressing uncertainties as information needs might help guide information seeking and reduce uncertainty. However, studies indicated that nurses have difficulty recognizing or expressing uncertainties, and as a result, information needs are not recognized and information seeking is not initiated. Conclusions: A more comprehensive understanding of nurses' uncertainty could lead to the development and implementation of strategies to support nurses in their clinical decision-making and practice. Descriptions are needed about how nurses experience and respond to uncertainty in their practice, and the influence of uncertainty on their information needs and information seeking.

Western gorillas Gorilla gorilla have been exceedingly difficult to habituate to the presence of human observers. Nevertheless, researchers have amassed a wealth of information on population densities and group structure for this ape species by locating and counting the sleeping nests of wild individuals. Such nest-count studies have suggested that western gorilla groups often have multiple silverbacks and these multimale groups occasionally divide into smaller subgroups. However, observational data from forest clearing sites and from a few recently habituated western gorilla groups show no evidence of multimale family groups or of subgrouping. This discrepancy underscores a long-standing question in ape research: How accurately do nesting sites reflect true group compositions? We evaluated these indirect measures of group composition by using DNA from faeces and hair to genetically identify individual gorillas at nesting sites. Samples were collected from unhabituated wild western gorillas ranging near Mondika Research Center in the Central African Republic and Republic of Congo. DNA extracted from these samples was genotyped at up to 10 microsatellite loci and one X–Y homologous locus for sex identification. Individuals were then identified at nesting sites by their unique multilocus genotypes, thus providing a ‘molecular census’ of individual gorillas. Results confirm that western gorillas often build more than one nest at a nesting site and, thus, nest counts can be highly inaccurate indicators of group size and composition. Indeed, we found that nest counts can overestimate group size by as much as 40%, indicating that true gorilla population numbers are probably lower than those reported from census surveys. This study demonstrates how genetic analysis can be a valuable tool for studying and conserving elusive, endangered animals.

Female philopatry and male dispersal are the norm for most mammals, and females that remain in their natal region often derive foraging or social benefits from proximity to female kin. However, other factors, such as constraints on group size or a shortage of potential mates, may promote female dispersal even when female kin associations would be beneficial. In these cases, female kin associations might develop, not through female philopatry, but through female emigration to the same group. To date, little attention has been focused on the potential for kin-biased behaviour between females in female-dispersing species. Here we investigate the genetic relationships among adults in eight wild groups of unhabituated western gorillas ( Gorilla gorilla ) at the Mondika Research Center using microsatellite genotyping of DNA collected from hair and faeces. We found that almost half (40%) of adult females had an adult female relative in the same group and average within-group relatedness among females was significantly higher than that expected under a model of random dispersal. This provides the first genetic evidence that females can maintain social associations with female relatives in spite of routine natal and secondary dispersal. In addition, we show that females appear to avoid related silverback males when making dispersal decisions, suggesting that a strategy of non-random female dispersal may also function to avoid inbreeding.

Analyses of plant DNA in feces provides a promising, yet largely unexplored, means of documenting the diets of elusive primates. Here we demonstrate the promise and pitfalls of this approach using DNA extracted from fecal samples of wild western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) and black and white colobus monkeys (Colobus guereza). From these DNA extracts we amplified, cloned, and sequenced small segments of chloroplast DNA (part of the rbcL gene) and plant nuclear DNA (ITS-2). The obtained sequences were compared to sequences generated from known plant samples and to those in GenBank to identify plant taxa in the feces. With further optimization, this method could provide a basic evaluation of minimum primate dietary diversity even when knowledge of local flora is limited. This approach may find application in studies characterizing the diets of poorly-known, unhabituated primate species or assaying consumer-resource relationships in an ecosystem.

Aim: The aim of the project was to develop an electronic information gathering and dissemination system to support both nursing-sensitive outcomes data collection and evidence-based decision-making at the point-of-patient care. Background: With the current explosion of health-related knowledge, it is a challenge for nurses to regularly access information that is most current. The Internet provides timely access to health information, however, nurses do not readily use the Internet to access practice information because of being task-driven and coping with heavy workloads. Mobile computing technology addresses this reality by providing the opportunity for nurses to access relevant information at the time of nurse–patient contact. Method: A cross-sectional, mixed-method design was used to describe nurses' requirements for point-of-care information collection and utilization. The sample consisted of 51 nurses from hospital and home care settings. Data collection involved work sampling and focus group interviews. Findings: In the hospital sector, 40% of written information was recorded onto “personal papers” at point-of-care and later transcribed into the clinical record. Nurses often sought information away from the point-of-care; for example, centrally located health records, or policy and procedure manuals. In home care, documentation took place in clients' homes. The most frequent source of information was “nurse colleagues.” Nurses' top priorities for information were vital signs data, information on intravenous (IV) drug compatibility, drug references, and manuals of policies and procedures. Implications: A prototype software system was designed that enables nurses to use handheld computers to simultaneously document patients' responses to treatment, obtain real-time feedback about patient outcomes, and access electronic resources to support clinical decision-making. Conclusion: The prototype software system has the potential to increase nurses' access to patient outcomes information and evidence for point-of-care decision-making.

Background: Most administrative databases do not contain good information about nursing-sensitive outcomes. Objectives: To determine (a) the reliability of the instruments measuring nursing-sensitive outcomes, (b) whether the outcome measures are sensitive to changes in patients' health, and (c) whether the outcome measures are associated with nursing interventions. Methods: The sample consisted of 890 patients from acute care hospitals and long-term-care facilities. A repeated measures design was used. Functional status was assessed on admission and discharge using Minimum Data Set 2.0 items. Symptom (pain, nausea, dyspnea, fatigue) frequency and severity were assessed with 4-point and 11-point numeric scales, respectively. Therapeutic self-care was assessed on discharge from acute care. Nursing interventions were assessed by documentation review. Results: The outcome measures demonstrated very good interrater reliability with weighted Kappa ranging from .64 to .93. The internal consistency reliability was high for functional status and therapeutic self-care. The outcome tools were sensitive to change in patient condition. Select nursing interventions were related to functional status, therapeutic self-care, and symptom outcomes. Discussion: The findings suggest that nurses are able to collect data on nursing-sensitive patient outcomes in a reliable and valid way.

In comparison to their close relatives the chimpanzees and humans, very little is known concerning the amount and structure of genetic variation in gorillas. Two species of gorillas are recognized and while the western gorillas number in the tens of thousands, only several hundred representatives of the mountain gorilla subspecies of eastern gorillas survive. To analyse the possible effects of these different population sizes, this study compares the variation observed at microsatellite and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) loci in samples of wild western and mountain gorillas, collected using a sampling scheme that targeted multiple social groups within defined geographical areas. Noninvasive samples proved a viable source of DNA for sequence analysis of the second exon of the DRB loci of the MHC. Observed levels of variation at the MHC locus were similar between the two gorilla species and were comparable to those in other primates. Comparison of results from analysis of variation at multiple microsatellite loci found only a slight reduction in heterozygosity for the mountain gorillas despite the relatively smaller population size.

Purpose:To review the propositions of a theory-driven approach and to discuss its application to evaluating the quality of nursing care. Organizing Framework:The focus in the theory-driven approach to evaluation is on identifying patient, professional, and setting characteristics that affect the processes of care at micro and meso levels, which in turn contribute to outcome achievement. Implications for examining the interrelationships among characteristics, processes, and outcomes are discussed and illustrated with examples from published research. Conclusions:Determining how these variables influence each other provides a valid and comprehensive understanding of the contribution of nursing within the health care system.

We examined the influence of ecological (diet, swamp use, and rainfall) and social (intergroup interaction rate) factors on ranging behavior in one group of western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) during a 16-month study. Relative to mountain gorillas, western gorillas live in habitats with reduced herb densities, more readily available fruit (from seasonal and rare fruit trees), and, at some sites, localized large open clearings (swamps and “bais”). Ranging behavior reflects these ecological differences. The daily path length (DPL) of western gorillas was longer (mean=2,014 m) than that of mountain gorillas, and was largely related to fruit acquisition. Swamp use occurred frequently (27% of days) and incurred a 50% increase in DPL, and 77% of the variation in monthly frequency of swamp use was explained by ripe fruit availability within the swamp, and not by the absence of resources outside the swamp. The annual home-range size was 15.4 km2. The western gorilla group foraged in larger areas each month, and reused them more frequently and consistently through time compared to mountain gorillas. In contrast to mountain gorillas, intergroup encounters occurred at least four times more frequently, were usually calm rather than aggressive, and had no consistent effect on DPL or monthly range size for one group of western gorillas. High genetic relatedness among at least some neighboring males [Bradley et al., Current Biology, in press] may help to explain these results, and raises intriguing questions about western gorilla social relationships. Am J Primatol 64:207–222, 2004. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

The objective of this paper is to collate information on western gorilla diet from six study sites throughout much of their current range, including preliminary information from two sites (Afi and Lossi), where studies of diet have begun only recently. Food lists were available from each site, derived from indirect signs of gorilla feeding (such as feces), with some observational data. Important staple, seasonal, and fallback foods have been identified, and a number of striking similarities across sites have been revealed based on a much larger data set than was previously available. It was confirmed that the western gorilla diet is always eclectic, including up to 230 items and 180 species. The greatest diversity is found among the fruit species eaten, fruit being included in western gorilla diets from all sites and throughout most or all of the year. Eight plant families provide important foods at five, or all six, sites, suggesting that it may be possible in the future to predict which habitats are the most suitable for gorillas. Gorillas exploit both rare and common forest species. Similarities and differences among sites can be explained superficially on the basis of geography and the past history of the forest. Gorilla density across sites appears to be most affected by the density of monocotyledonous bulk food plants, but its relationship to the density of important tree food species has yet to be tested.

The papers in this issue are from a conference held in May 2002 at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany. This conference brought together researchers from all current western gorilla sites for the first time with the aim of synthesizing the most current information available on western gorilla behavioral ecology. Our goal was to assess the degree of behavioral diversity in gorillas in light of our current understanding of social evolution. The articles include 1) synopses of the current information on western gorilla foraging strategy, social behavior, life history, and genetic variation; 2) more-detailed descriptions of home-range use and intergroup encounters across sites; and 3) the first description of the social behavior of western gorilla females.

We report prevalences and eggs/protozoa per g (EPG; PPG) of helminths and protozoa in gorillas, chimpanzees, agile mangabeys, indigenous Ba'Aka and Bantu, and western researchers at a remote field site in the Central African Republic. We examined fecal samples for eggs, larvae, proglottids, cysts, amoeba, trophozoites, and flagellates. For helminths, strongylates were most prevalent, infecting 82–94% of nonhuman primates (NH) and 30–93% of human (H) groups, followed by ascaroids (14–88% NH; 0–15% H), and threadworms (0–22% NH; 0–29% H). For protozoa, Entamoeba histolytica (2–100% NH; 33–52% H) and trichomonads (11–88% NH; 0–54% H) were most prevalent. Among gorilla samples (n = 156) there were significant age/sex differences in EPG/PPG for strongylates, threadworms, Entamoeba histolytica, and trichomonads, with infants exhibiting the highest mean EPG/PPG for all parasites except trichomonads. Between group analyses revealed that the Ba'Aka had significantly higher mean EPG of strongylates, ascaroids and threadworms than all other primate groups, except the mangabeys. For Entamoeba histolytica, E. coli, Balantidium coli, and Iodamoeba butschlii, the agile mangabeys had significantly higher mean PPG than other groups; for trichomonads, the chimpanzees, and mangabeys had the highest mean PPG. Relative to other African ape sites, the gorillas and chimpanzees at Mondika appear to have high prevalences of intestinal parasites. This may be the result of the high proportion of swamp and seasonally flooded areas, which provide optimal viability for parasite eggs and ova. At Mondika, the significantly higher parasite levels of Ba'Aka probably result from more traditional methods of hygiene and lack of available medical treatment. All workers at research sites should be monitored and treated to minimize cross-transmission between humans and local fauna.

We collected nesting data from 512 fresh nest sites, including 3725 individual nests, of western gorillas at the Mondika Research Site, Central African Republic and Republic of Congo from 1996 through mid-1999. The mean count of nests of weaned individuals is 7.4 per nest site. Nest types included bare earth with no construction (45% of total), partial to full ground construction (34%), and arboreal (21%). Females, blackbacks, and juveniles as a combined age-sex class built significantly more arboreal nests (21% of total) than silverbacks did (2%). Proximate rainfall (independent of temperature) is significantly correlated with nest construction, i.e., as rainfall increased, silverbacks built more ground nests, and non-silverbacks built more ground and arboreal nests. Maximum daily temperature (independent of rainfall) is significantly negatively correlated with nest construction, i.e., as temperature increased, gorillas slept more often on bare earth without constructing a nest. Accordingly, we conclude that although nest building in gorillas may have innate components shared with other great apes, it is a flexible behavioral pattern that in some western populations is often not exhibited. It appears that when gorillas in this population build nests, they do so in response to both wet and cool conditions, and independently of diet, ranging, or group size.

Individually distinct vocalizations play an important role in animal communication, allowing call recipients to respond differentially based on caller identity. However, which of the many calls in a species' repertoire should have more acoustic variability and be more recognizable is less apparent. One proposed hypothesis is that calls used over long distances should be more distinct because visual cues are not available to identify the caller. An alternative hypothesis proposes that close calls should be more recognizable because of their importance in social interactions. To examine which hypothesis garners more support, the acoustic variation and individual distinctiveness of eight call types of six wild western gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) females were investigated. Acoustic recordings of gorilla calls were collected at the Mondika Research Center (Republic of Congo). Acoustic variability was high in all gorilla calls. Similar high inter-individual variation and potential for identity coding (PIC) was found for all call types. Discriminant function analyses confirmed that all call types were individually distinct (although for call types with lowest sample size - hum, grumble and scream - this result cannot be generalized), suggesting that neither the distance at which communication occurs nor the call social function alone can explain the evolution of identity signaling in western gorilla communication. peerReviewed

The growing need to gain efficiencies within a home care setting has prompted home care practitioners to focus on health informatics to address the needs of an aging clientele. The remote and heterogeneous nature of the home care environment necessitates the use of non-intrusive client monitoring and a portable, point-of-care graphical user interface. Using a grounded theory approach, this article examines the simulated use of a graphical user interface by practitioners in a home care setting to explore the salient features of monitoring the activity of home care clients. The results demonstrate the need for simple, interactive displays that can provide large amounts of geographical and temporal data relating to patient activity. Additional emerging themes from interviews indicate that home care professionals would use a graphical user interface of this type for patient education and goal setting as well as to assist in the decision-making process of home care practitioners.

The African apes are a group of closely related taxa that differ considerably in body size. In spite of the large body size difference, the African apes are similar in many aspects of their morphology; it has been suggested that most of their differences result from selection for these body size differences (Shea, 1988). The influence of body size on locomotion has been well-documented, but what is less clear, is whether these behavioral differences occur throughout ontogeny because few studies have directly addressed the influence of ontogeny (and changing body size) on locomotion. This study documents the ontogeny of mountain gorilla locomotion and compares it with that of chimpanzees in order to consider how changing body size during ontogeny influences locomotion in the two species. Results indicate that gorilla locomotor development is greatly accelerated compared with chimpanzees, and that much of the interspecific variation in age can be explained by body size. When chimpanzees and gorillas are at similar sizes (although widely disparate ages), they perform very similar locomotor activities. However, it is incorrect to view a gorilla as a faster growing and ultimately larger chimpanzee. Throughout ontogeny, gorillas have broader scapulae and relatively shorter phalanges and metacarpals than chimpanzees (Susman, 1979; Shea, 1981; Jungers & Susman, 1984; Inouye, 1992) which are associated differences in mountain gorilla and chimpanzee suspensory behavior; gorillas never show as high an incidence of suspensory behavior as chimpanzees during ontogeny.

Lowland rain forest chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) of the Tai National Park, Ivory Coast, responded to the minor dry season (July and August) of 1988 in a predictable manner by spending more time feeding, feeding more frequently on lower quality food items, reducing day range and party size, and spending more time solitarily and less time in mixed groups than during the rainy season. These behaviors are consistent with a response to scarce resources. My findings do not support Boesch's (1991, 1996) hypothesis of bisexually bonded chimpanzees. Females spent 45% of time alone and associated with males in mixed parties only 18% of their time. This major discrepancy in our results probably stems from differences in the time of year when our studies were conducted, the year in which my study was conducted (potentially scarcer resources than on average), and methodological differences: focal animal sampling of males and females equally. Although Boesch (1991, 1996) and Steiner (1996) have demonstrated that Tai parties are usually larger and more mixed, Tai chimpanzee social structure—party size and composition—during this study closely resembles that found at other study sites.

To understand the evolutionary histories and conservation potential of wild animal species it is useful to assess whether taxa are genetically structured into different populations and identify the underlying factors responsible for any clustering. Landscape features such as rivers may influence genetic population structure, and analysis of structure by sex can further reveal effects of sex-specific dispersal. Using microsatellite genotypes obtained from noninvasively collected fecal samples we investigated the population structure of 261 western lowland gorillas (WLGs) (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) from seven locations spanning an approximately 37,000 km(2) region of mainly continuous rain forest within Central African Republic (CAR), Republic of Congo and Cameroon. We found our sample to consist of two or three significantly differentiated clusters. The boundaries of the clusters coincided with courses of major rivers. Moreover, geographic distance detoured around rivers better-explained variation in genetic distance than straight line distance. Together these results suggest that major rivers in our study area play an important role in directing WLG gene flow. The number of clusters did not change when males and females were analyzed separately, indicating a lack of greater philopatry in WLG females than males at this scale.

The use of loud vocal signals to reduce distance among separated social partners is well documented in many species; however, the underlying mechanisms by which the reduction of spacing occurs and how they differ across species remain unclear. Western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) offer an opportunity to investigate these issues because their vocal repertoire includes a loud, long-distance call (i.e., hoot series) that is potentially used in within-group communication, whereas mountain gorillas use an identical call exclusively during intergroup encounters. First, we tested whether the hoot series functions as a contact/separation call. Second, we examined which individuals were more likely to reply and which party was more responsible for decreasing distance to identify the underlying mechanisms and cognitive implications of hoot series. We collected behavioral, spatial, and acoustic data on five adult gorillas over 15 months at the Mondika Research Center (Republic of Congo and CAR). Hoot series are individually distinct calls and given by both male and female gorillas when separated from each other. Following hooting, the distance between separated group members decreased significantly; thus we concluded that western gorillas use this call to reestablish group cohesion. The way in which proximity was achieved depended upon listeners replying or not to the caller. Replies may indicate a conflict between callers about intended travel direction, with vocal interchanges serving to negotiate a consensus. Although the acoustic features of vocal signals are highly constrained in closely related species, our results demonstrate that the function and usage of particular calls can be flexible.

Purpose To evaluate the perceived quality of interactions between nurses and physicians in oncology outpatient clinics. Methods A cross-sectional, observational survey involving 250 physicians and nurses was conducted at oncology outpatient clinics at two regional cancer centres in the province of Ontario, Canada. Eligible participants were identified by administrators and invited to complete a one-time survey questionnaire. Quality of interactions was assessed using a seven-item survey of relational coordination, which measures two factors of interaction: supportive relationships and quality communication. Descriptive analyses and multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVA) were conducted to assess potential differences between the two study sites and the two professional groups. Results Overall, nurses and physicians at both study sites rated their interactions highly (mean = 4.32 and 4.51 out of 5 for supportive relationships and quality communication, respectively). No difference in either factor was reported between physicians and nurses at either study site, but the two study sites differed significantly in both factors [ F (2, 245) = 7.54, p Conclusions Overall, oncology nurses and oncologists at outpatient clinics rated their levels of interprofessional interaction highly. Contextual factors may have contributed to the high interaction scores and different ratings between the two cancer centres. The finding that nurses and physicians reported similar levels of perceived interactions suggests that relationships in these outpatient cancer clinics are highly collaborative and collegial.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the implementation of a clinical information system (CIS) in a community setting. The researchers used a mixed-method design involving interviews, focus groups, and surveys. An independent cross-sectional sample of nurses was surveyed. At time 1 a total of 118 nurses responded and at time 2 a total of 81. Respondents were moderately satisfied with features of the CIS. User satisfaction was positively associated with access to structural and electronic resources and social capital and negatively associated with nurses' age at time 1. Social capital was positively associated with user satisfaction at time 2. Younger age was associated with overall research use at both time 1 and time 2. Research use was negatively associated with evaluation and feedback but positively associated with formal interactions. This evaluation identified the importance of educational support, user-centred design, and responsiveness to successful implementation of CISs in a community setting.

To characterise the nursing practices of vital signs collection and documentation in a general internal medicine environment to inform strategies for improving workflow design.Clinical workflow analysis is critical to identify barriers and opportunities in current processes. Analysis can guide the design and development of novel technological solutions to produce greater efficiencies and effectiveness in healthcare delivery. Research surrounding vital signs documentation workflow in general internal medicine environments has received very little attention making it difficult to compare the effectiveness of new technologies.Qualitative ethnographic analyses and quantitative time-motion study were conducted.Workflows of 24 nurses at three hospitals in five general internal medicine environments were captured, and timeliness of vital signs assessment and documentation was measured.Clinical assessment of vital signs was consistent, but the documentation process was highly variable within groups and between hospitals. Two themes characterised workflow barriers surrounding point-of-care documentation. First, a lack of standardised documentation methods for vital signs resulted in higher rates of transcription, increasing not only the likelihood of errors but delays in recording and accessibility of information. Second, despite advancements in electronic documentation systems, the observed system was not conducive to point-of-care documentation. Average electronic documentation was significantly longer than paper documentation. Nurses developed ad hoc workarounds that were inefficient and undermined the intent of electronic documentation.We have identified barriers and opportunities to improve the efficiency of nursing vital signs documentation. Changes in technology, workflows and environmental design allow for significant improvements and deserve further exploration.Attention to clinical practice and environments can improve the workflow of prompt vital signs documentation and increase clinical productivity and timeliness of information for clinical decisions, as well as minimising transcription errors leading to safer patient care.

Results from a 10 month study of adult male and female bonobos (Pan paniscus) in the Lomako Forest, Zaire, and those from a 7 month study of adult male and female chimpanzees in the Tai Forest, Ivory Coast (Pan troglodytes verus), were compared in order to determine whether there are species differences in locomotor behavior and substrate use and, if so, whether these differences support predictions made on the basis of interspecific morphological differences. Results indicate that bonobos are more arboreal than chimpanzees and that male bonobos are more suspensory than their chimpanzee counterpart. This would be predicted on the basis of male bonobo's longer and more narrow scapula. This particular finding is contrary to the prediction that the bonobo is a "scaled reduced version of a chimpanzee" with little or no positional behavior difference as had been suggested. This study provides the behavioral data necessary to untangle contradictory interpretations of the morphological differences between chimpanzees and bonobos, and raises a previously discussed (Fleagle: Size and Scaling in Primate Biology, pp. 1-19, 1985) but frequently overlooked point--that isometry in allometric studies does not necessarily equate with behavioral equivalence. Several researchers have demonstrated that bonobos and chimpanzees follow the same scaling trends for many features, and are in some sense functionally equivalent, since they manage to feed and reproduce. However, as reflected in their morphologies, they do so through different types and frequencies of locomotor behaviors.

To test a theoretical model linking selected antecedent variables to intra-group conflict among nurses, and subsequently conflict management style, job stress and job satisfaction.A contributing factor to the nursing shortage is job dissatisfaction as a result of conflict among nurses. To develop strategies to reduce conflict, research is needed to understand the causes and outcomes of conflict in nursing work environments.A predictive, non-experimental design was used in a random sample of 277 acute care nurses. Structural equation modelling was used to analyse the hypothesised model.Nurses' core self-evaluations, complexity of care and relationships with managers and nursing colleagues influenced their perceived level of conflict. Conflict management style partially mediated the relationship between conflict and job satisfaction. Job stress had a direct effect on job satisfaction and core self-evaluation had a direct effect on job stress.Conflict and its associated outcomes is a complex process, affected by dispositional, contextual and interpersonal factors. How nurses manage conflict may not prevent the negative effects of conflict, however, learning to manage conflict using collaboration and accommodation may help nurses experience greater job satisfaction.Strategies to manage and reduce conflict include building interactional justice practices and positive interpersonal relationships.

Currently two methods, instantaneous and locomotor bout sampling, are used most commonly in studies of locomotor behavior. To date, no study has addressed how comparable the results of the two methods are. This paper considers whether different sampling methods of locomotor behavior produce different results. Continuous locomotor bout and instantaneous sampling were carried out simultaneously on each focal animal during a seven month study of chimpanzee positional behavior in the Tai Forest of the Ivory Coast. Results provide two independent sets of data which describe the same events. Results indicate that as locomotor bouts are frequently presented (the percentage of bouts spent in an activity), they overrepresent the frequencies of activities that occur relatively often, but for short distances, and underrepresent activities that have a relatively large mean distance per bout. However, when bouts are weighted with distance, as originally defined by Fleagle (1976b), there are no significant differences in the results obtained by the two methods. Both provide similar results for the frequencies of locomotor activities, frequency of substrate use, and the relationship between substrate and locomotor activity. The advantage of instantaneous sampling is that because it is done at regular intervals, it can easily be carried out in conjunction with sampling other behavioral and ecological data. The advantages of locomotor bout sampling are that it permits the sampling of rare or brief locomotor events and allows for an analysis of sequences of locomotor activities. This paper demonstrates that the two methods can be conducted simultaneously and thus provide the richest return from which the effect of environment and morphology on locomotion can be addressed.

Pygmy chimpanzees (Pan paniscus) have been described as “paedomorphic” in comparison with common chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) because some of their adult proportions and features are present in immature chimpanzees. However, interpretations of what this morphological paedomorphism means behaviorally have varied widely. This paper documents the changes in positional behavior that occur during the ontogeny of pygmy and common chimpanzees so as to assess whether the adult pygmy chimpanzee is more similar in its positional behavior to immature rather than adult chimpanzees. Results of field studies indicate that both pygmy and common chimpanzees show significant and similar patterns of change in locomotor behavior during ontogeny. With increasing age, in both species, there is an increase in the frequency of quadrupedalism. In early infancy, chimpanzee positional behavior is clearly forelimb dominated, and clinging, climbing and armhanging are most common. Aided bipedalism is the earliest form of frequent hindlimb use. Only later is the infant able to coordinate forelimb and hindlimb use in quadrupedalism. As the frequency of quadrupedalism increases, the frequency of bipedalism decreases. By 2 years of age, common chimpanzee locomotion is primarily quadrupedal. In addition to changes in the type and frequency of locomotor activities performed, there are also ontogenetic changes in the type of substrates used and the locomotor activities performed on them. Results also indicate that adult pygmy chimpanzee arboreal locomotor behavior differs from that of adult common chimpanzees and most closely resembles that of infant chimpanzees. Adult pygmy chimpanzees, like immature common chimpanzees, use more suspensory and quadrupedal behavior than adult common chimpanzees. Shea (1981) has demonstrated that heterochrony in African ape evolution has resulted in substantial morphological differentiation. The results of this study complement Shea's findings by demonstrating that behavioral differences are associated with the morphological patterns.

Most of what is currently known about western gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) diet is based on indirect studies using fecal samples and trail signs rather than measures based on direct observations. Here we report results on adult male and female western gorilla foraging behavior, based on systematic focal observations and nutritional analyses of foods. We found that western gorillas, like other apes, are highly selective ripe fruit specialists, seeking fruit high in energy, low in antifeedants, and rare in the environment. During seasonal fruiting peaks, fruit accounted for up to 70% of feeding time. When ripe fruit was scarce, gorillas increased time spent feeding on leaves and nonpreferred fruits and herbs. Leaves were the major fallback food, accounting for up to 70% of feeding time in males and 50% in females during periods of fruit scarcity. In spite of large differences in body size, the sexes were remarkably similar in their overall diet, not differing in time spent feeding on fruit or preferred herbs. However, the male consistently fed more often and on a greater variety of leaves than did females, whereas females fed more often on fallback herbs and termites. Our findings, when considered in light of previous findings on sympatric mangabeys, indicate that the foraging strategy of western gorillas is broadly similar to that of chimpanzees and orangutans, and distinct from that of old world monkeys.

Human females, unlike most mammals, are sexually active outside of fertile periods. This decoupling of sexual behavior from its conceptive function has had an enormous impact on human social relationships, and yet we know little about why there was selection for nonconceptive mating. Here we examine one form of nonconceptive mating, the mating that occurs during pregnancy or post-conceptive (PC) mating, in wild western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla). Using a near complete mating record for five females during gestation, we show that pregnant females varied in the timing and frequency of mating, and used PC mating conditionally, synchronizing copulations to occur on days when other females mated, and refraining from mating for lengthy periods when no other females mated. As pregnant females mated exclusively with the same male before and after conception, and mated in response to group female (and not male) behavior, we conclude that western gorillas used PC mating as a form of female competition, and not to confuse paternity or to obtain immediate benefits from the male, as suggested earlier. The male initiated copulations preferentially with females of high rank, rather than distinguishing between pregnant and cycling females. Therefore, PC mating appears to be a strategy by which high-ranking pregnant females attempt to minimize male interest in other females, while reinforcing their own status and potentially delaying conception in others. These findings indicate that female-mating competition is more important than considered earlier, and may be a factor in the evolution of nonconceptive mating in humans.

AIM(S): The purpose of this study was to identify the nature of patient safety problems among Canadian homecare (HC) clients, using data collected through the RAI-HC((c)) assessment instrument. BACKGROUND: Problems of patient safety have been well documented in hospitals. However, we have very limited data about patient safety problems among HC clients. METHOD(S): The study methodology involved a secondary analysis of data collected through the Canadian home care reporting system. The study sample consisted of all HC clients who qualified to receive a RAI-HC assessment from Ontario, Nova Scotia and Winnipeg Regional Health Authority for the 2003-2007 reporting period. There were a total of 238 958 cases available for analysis; 205 953 from Ontario, 26 751 from Nova Scotia and 6254 from Winnipeg Regional Health Authority. RESULTS: New fall (11%), unintended weight loss (9%), new emergency room (ER) visits (7%) and new hospital visits (8%) were the most prevalent potential adverse events identified in our study. A small proportion of the HC clients experienced a new urinary tract infection (2%). CONCLUSION(S): Understanding clients' risk profiles is foundational to effective patient care management. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING MANAGEMENT: We need to begin to develop evidence about best practices for ameliorating safety risk. Language: en