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Skeletal preparation has become an integral component within the field of forensic anthropology. The aim of this study was to determine which commercial detergent was most effective and efficient for use in skeletal preparation. The hind limbs of 24 pigs (Sus scrofa) and five detergents with bleaching agents and enzymes (Surf and Ariel), only enzymes (OMO Auto and Sunlight powder) or only bleaching agents (Sunlight dishwashing liquid) were used. Specimens were skinned and immersed into a pre-heated 6 L detergent solution or tap water and macerated at either 45 °C, 50 °C, 55 °C and 60 °C. When maceration was deemed complete any remaining soft tissue was manually removed under running tap water and the remains left to dry. A scoring system was utilized to assess the effectiveness and efficiency of each detergent. OMO Auto specimens only required a single day to complete macerate regardless of the temperature and these specimens constantly scored better than the other detergents used, thus making it the most effective and efficient detergent tested., (Copyright © 2021. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Objectives: To evaluate the impact of the ASTM International (formerly American Society of Testing Materials) safety standard and associated product safety changes on accidental exposures to liquid laundry packets (LLPs) in children., Methods: The National Poison Data System was queried for reports of accidental exposures to LLPs in children <6 years old received from 01 July 2012 to 31 December 2018. In 2014, ASTM International began developing a standard specifying voluntary product changes to reduce the risk of LLP exposures in young children. Product changes were made between 2013 and 2016. Exposures were grouped into baseline, transition, and post periods based on the timing of the standard's implementation. Exposure counts and sales adjusted rates were compared between the baseline and post period for all exposures and exposures involving healthcare facility (HCF) evaluation, HCF admission, and major medical outcomes., Results: A total of 73,942 accidental exposures in children <6 years old were reported (baseline: 10,229, 13.8%; transition: 43,507, 58.8%; post: 20,206, 27.3%). The percentage of exposures involving HCF evaluation (41.5% to 33.8%), HCF admission (4.5% to 1.9%), and major medical outcomes (0.6% to 0.1%) decreased from the baseline to post period. Sales adjusted rates of all exposures decreased 57.4% (4.920-2.094 exposures/1 million packets sold). Decreases also occurred in HCF evaluations (65.0% decrease; 2.026-0.708 exposures/1 million packets sold), HCF admissions (81.4% decrease; 0.218-0.041 exposures/1 million packets sold), and major medical outcomes (90.9% decrease; 0.030-0.003 exposures/1 million packets sold)., Conclusions: The morbidity of accidental exposures to LLPs in children decreased substantially following implementation of the ASTM International safety standard. Ongoing monitoring should be performed to determine if additional safety measures are required.

Biofilms are believed to be a source of chronic inflammation in non-healing wounds., Purpose: In this study, the pre-clinical anti-biofilm efficacy of several wound cleansers was examined using the Calgary minimum biofilm eradication concentration (MBEC) and ex vivo porcine dermal explant (PDE) models on Pseudomonas aeruginosa, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and Candida albicans biofilms., Methods: A surfactant-based cleanser and antimicrobial-based cleansers containing ionic silver, hypochlorous acid (HOCl), sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), and polyhexamethylene biguanide (PHMB) were tested on the MBEC model biofilms with a 10-minute application time. Select cleansers were then tested on the mature PDE biofilms with 10-minute applications followed by the application of cleanser-soaked gauze. The PDE model was further expanded to include single and daily applications of the cleansers to mimic daily and 72-hour dressing changes., Results: In the MBEC model, PHMB- and HOCl-based cleansers reduced immature MRSA, C albicans, and P aeruginosa biofilm regrowth by > 3× when compared with silver, surfactant, and saline cleansers. The major differences could be elucidated in the PDE model in which, after daily application, 1 PHMB-based cleanser showed a statistically significant reduction (3-8 CFU/mL log reduction) in all mature biofilms tested, while a NaOCl-based cleanser showed significant reduction in 2 microorganisms (3-5 CFU/mL log reduction, P aeruginosa and MRSA).The other PHMB-based cleanser showed a statistically significant 3 log CFU/mL reduction in P aeruginosa. The remaining cleansers showed no statistically significant difference from the saline control., Conclusion: Results confirm that there are model-dependent differences in the outcomes of these studies, suggesting the importance of model selection for product screening. The results indicate that 1 PHMB-based cleanser was effective in reducing mature P aeruginosa, MRSA, and C albicans biofilms and that sustained antimicrobial presence was necessary to reduce or eliminate these mature biofilms.

Objective: Soap has been used by humankind since ancient times and was probably already known to the Sumerians. It is a fatty acid salt obtained from the reaction of a strong base with a fatty substance of animal (tallow) or plant origin (oil). This reaction is called saponification. Syndets, on the other hand, are much more recent and have been in use for about a century. In the case of liquid syndets, they are mainly alkyl sulphates and their derivatives alkyl ether sulphates while isethionates and sarcosinates are more commonly found in solid syndets. Synthetic soaps and detergents are surfactants and, as such, they have detergent properties. The way soap works accounts for its antimicrobial properties. Thanks to its amphiphilic structure, it is able to interact with the lipid membranes of microorganisms (viruses, bacteria, etc.) and inactivate them. In this coronavirus pandemic period, health authorities worldwide recommend hand washing with soap and water. We therefore wanted to provide a summary of the chemical characteristics and applications of soaps, on the one hand, and synthetic detergents, on the other. Soap is not the only product used for hand hygiene and, given the current situation, alternatives are complex and varied.

One of the main objectives of the food industry is to guarantee food safety by providing innocuous food products. Therefore, this sector must consider all the possible biotic or abiotic contamination routes from the entry of raw materials to the release of the final product. Currently, one important problem in this regard is the presence of biofilms on food contact surfaces which can transmit pathogens such as L. monocytogenes. In industrial conditions biofilms are found in a mature state, so it is essential that when carrying out removal effectiveness studies in vitro the tests are realized with models that produce these structures in a similarly mature state. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of an alternative treatment (i.e. enzymatic detergent that include natural antimicrobial agents) and a conventional treatment (i.e. chlorinated alkaline) for the elimination of mature L. monocytogenes biofilms. The results showed a cell detachment from the formed mature biofilms with an effectivity of between 74.75%-97.73% and 53.94%-94.02% for the enzymatic treatment and the chlorinated alkaline detergent, respectively. On a qualitative level, it was observed that the dispersion in the structure was much higher for the enzymatic treatment than for the chlorinated alkaline, which continued to show obvious structure integrity. All this leads to the conclusion that treatments with an enzymatic detergent have a significantly greater impact on the removal of mature L. monocytogenes biofilms, although a further disinfection process would be needed, enhancing even more the treatment effectivity. This may imply that the industrial approach to addressing this problem should be modified to include new perspectives that are more effective than traditional ones., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Indoor air quality (IAQ) is one of the main topics in which governments are focusing. In healthcare facilities, several studies have reported data analysis and case studies to improve users' health. Nowadays, although many studies have been conducted related to the biological and physical risks, the chemical risks have been less investigated and only in some specific functional areas of the hospitals. Starting from some systematic reviews and research works, this paper aims to list the best healthy practices for an adequate IAQ in inpatient wards. In particular, the decalogue lists the strategies related to chemical pollution, starting from design and management, with a focus on (a) localization of hospitals and inpatient rooms, (b) hospital room, (c) microclimatic parameters, (d) ventilation systems, (e) materials and finishing, (f) furniture and equipment, (g) cleaning products and activities, (h) maintenance and (i) management activities, and (l) users and workers. The multidisciplinary approach emphasizes the need for interdisciplinary knowledge and skills aimed to find solutions able to protect users' health status. The design and management decision-making, ranging from the adequate choices of construction site and hospital exposure, finishing materials, cleaning and maintenance activities, etc., which can affect the IAQ must be carried out based on scientific research and data analysis.

Background: Central venous catheters (CVCs) for apheresis procedures require regular locking/flushes to maintain adequate flow rates. Literature comparing locking solutions for apheresis, where the time interval between procedures can be longer than for hemodialysis (many days to weeks), is lacking. In this study, catheter malfunction rates using recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rt-PA) vs heparin for locking CVC between apheresis procedures were compared., Study Design and Methods: A retrospective review of 93 extracorporeal photopheresis procedures in 10 patients was performed at our institution. About 1000 U/mL heparin or 2 mg rt-PA was used as the locking solution. Heparin locks were changed at least once per week and rt-PA locks could be left in place for up to 4 weeks. Following these locks, inadequate blood flow noted on accessing CVC and/or during the procedure was scored on as: no issues, some issues, or significant issues. Binary logistic regression was used to evaluate for potential statistical difference in outcomes. Cost analysis was also performed., Results: No statistically significant difference was noted in outcomes between heparin and rt-PA lock (P value = 0.15). Total cost of heparin lock administration ($91-$362.50) was found to be more than rt-PA lock ($76) when more than one flush was needed between procedures., Conclusions: For apheresis use, rt-PA and heparin CVC locks seem to have similar outcomes in preventing CVC malfunction. The convenience of not needing any flushes between procedures and overall cost of administering fewer locks favors rt-PA use when the interval between procedures is >7 days., (© 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Chemical catalysts are being replaced by biocatalysts in almost all industrial applications due to environmental concerns, thereby increasing their demand. Enzymes used in current industries are produced in microbial systems or plant seeds. We report here five newly launched leaf-enzyme products and their validation with 15 commercial microbial-enzyme products, for detergent or textile industries. Enzymes expressed in chloroplasts are functional at broad pH/temperature ranges as crude-leaf extracts, while most purified commercial enzymes showed significant loss at alkaline pH or higher temperature, required for broad range commercial applications. In contrast to commercial liquid enzymes requiring cold storage/transportation, chloroplast enzymes as a leaf powder can be stored up to 16 months at ambient temperature without loss of enzyme activity. Chloroplast-derived enzymes are stable in crude-leaf extracts without addition of protease inhibitors. Leaf lipase/mannanase crude extracts removed chocolate or mustard oil stains effectively at both low and high temperatures. Moreover, leaf lipase or mannanase crude-extracts removed stain more efficiently at 70 °C than commercial microbial enzymes (<10% activity). Endoglucanase and exoglucanase in crude leaf extracts removed dye efficiently from denim surface and depilled knitted fabric by removal of horizontal fibre strands. Due to an increased demand for enzymes in the food industry, marker-free lettuce plants expressing lipase or cellobiohydrolase were created for the first time and site-specific transgene integration/homoplasmy was confirmed by Southern blots. Thus, leaf-production platform offers a novel low-cost approach by the elimination of fermentation, purification, concentration, formulation and cold-chain storage/transportation. This is the first report of commercially launched protein products made in leaves and validated with current commercial products., (© 2019 The Authors. Plant Biotechnology Journal published by Society for Experimental Biology and The Association of Applied Biologists and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Microbial-based cleaning products (MBCPs) continue to gain popularity in the market as environmentally friendly cleaners. The majority of these products contain spores of various Bacillus species. Although the microorganisms used in MBCPs are subject to regulation in Canada under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, the products themselves are not. Unlike other types of microbial products such as probiotics and biopesticides, the use, manufacture and quality parameters of MBCPs in Canada and other countries are poorly defined and not specifically subject to any required standards. Due to their complexity and nature, these products feature unique quality challenges. We noted the existing MBCPs we analyzed vary vastly in quality; external microbial contaminants, viability of the spores and the biocompatibility of the ingredients are issues that greatly affect product quality. A proper taxonomic identification of the bacterial species used also seems to be a major challenge for a number of manufacturers. A good understanding of the mechanisms governing these quality challenges and the adoption of good practices for the cultivation, harvesting, formulation, and manufacture of these types of products are essential for achieving high-quality performance standards., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The parameters affecting the recovery of pharmaceutical residues from the surface of stainless steel coupons for quantitative cleaning verification method development have been studied, including active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) level, spiking procedure, API/excipient ratio, analyst-to-analyst variability, inter-day variability, and cleaning procedure of the coupons. The lack of a well-defined procedure that consistently cleaned coupon surface was identified as the major contributor to low and variable recoveries. Assessment of acid, base, and oxidant washes, as well as the order of treatment, showed that a base-water-acid-water-oxidizer-water wash procedure resulted in consistent, accurate spiked recovery (>90%) and reproducible results (S rel ≤4%). By applying this cleaning procedure to the previously used coupons that failed the cleaning acceptance criteria, multiple analysts were able to obtain consistent recoveries from day-to-day for different APIs, and API/excipient ratios at various spike levels. We successfully applied our approach for cleaning verification of small molecules (MW<1000Da) as well as large biomolecules (MW up to 50,000Da). Method robustness was greatly influenced by the sample preparation procedure, especially for analyses using total organic carbon (TOC) determination., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Cleaning products have long been a focus of efforts to improve sustainability and assure safety for the aquatic environment when disposed of after use. The latter is addressed at ingredient level through environmental risk assessment, including in formal frameworks such as REACH. Nevertheless, in the context of programs to improve overall sustainability, stakeholders demand both environmental safety assurance and progress at product level. Current product-level approaches for aquatic toxicity (e.g., USEtox™, Critical Dilution Volume) can be seen as predominantly hazard-based. The more logical approach would be risk-based, because ecotoxicity is generally threshold-dependent and hazard-based assessment produces conflicts with risk-based learnings. The development of a risk-based approach to assess formulated products is described: the International Association for Soaps, Detergents and Maintenance Products (A.I.S.E.) Charter Environmental Safety Check (ESC), which is consistent with the scientific principles underlying REACH. This is implemented through a simple spreadsheet tool and internal database of ingredient parameters including predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) and removal rate. A novel feature is applying market volume information for both product types and ingredients to permit a risk-based calculation. To pass the ESC check, the projected environmental safety ratio (PESR) for each ingredient as formulated and dosed (unless cleared by a published risk assessment or exempted as inherently low risk) must be less than 1. The advantages of a risk-based approach are discussed. The strengths and limitations of various possible approaches to standard-setting, product-ranking and driving continuous improvement in respect of potential ecotoxic impacts on the aquatic environment are considered. It is proposed that as ecotoxicity is generally accepted to be threshold-dependent, with no effect below the threshold, the most constructive approach to continuous improvement of sustainability with regard to ecotoxicity is to focus efforts on instances where the safety margins for ingredients as used in specific products are narrow. This necessitates a risk-based approach. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2017;13:127-138. © 2016 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of SETAC., (© 2016 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of SETAC.)

In an attempt to create a standardized resource for cleansing both non-tunneled and tunneled hemodialysis catheters, it was discovered that all disinfectants are not compatible with all catheters. This article describes the process used to identify best practices for hemodialysis catheter care and steps taken to standardize practice throughout a hospital network. Standardized evidence-based practice preserves the integrity of catheters while allowing nurses to provide quality care to patients.

Job-related hand dermatitis heads up the list of reported occupational diseases. So-called skin products - understood to mean protective creams, skin cleansers and skin care products - are used for the primary and secondary prevention of job- related hand dermatitis. In the interests of evidence-based medicine, the only preventive measures and/or occupational skin products that should be used are those whose potential uses and efficacy are underpinned by scientific research. To this end, the Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Berufs- und Umweltdermatologie e.V. (Working Group for Occupational and Environmental Dermatology, ABD) of the DDG (German Dermatological Society) and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Arbeits- und Umweltmedizin (German Society for Occupational and Environmental Medicine, DGAUM) have summed up the latest scientific findings and recommendations in the updated guideline. The benefit of the combined application of protective creams and skin care products in the primary and secondary prevention of work-related contact dermatitis has been widely confirmed by recent clinical-epidemiological studies. The guideline clearly explains the necessity of demonstrating the efficacy of protective creams and cleansing products by means of in vivo methods in the sense of repetitive applications. Transferable standardised testing systems designed to examine the irritation potential and thus the compatibility of occupational skin cleansers and the reduction of irritation by protective skin creams have now been developed and validated by multicentre studies for skin protection creams and cleansers. The status of the current assessment of the safety of occupational skin products is also summarised., (© 2015 The Authors | Journal compilation © Blackwell Verlag GmbH, Berlin.)

Purpose: The aim of this paper was to develop a new recreational water quality index (RWQI) as a tool to ensure the health of swimmers and to take practical decisions., Methods: RWQI was elaborated with epidemiological data, and we carried out an exhaustive study of the different guidelines for recreational waters proposed by different organisations around the world. Different parameters were chosen, considering, as a priority, the swimmer's contact and the possibility of ingestion of water during the recreational activity. Furthermore, rating curves were established for pH, chemical oxygen demand, nitrate, phosphate, detergents, enterococci, total coliforms, faecal coliforms and Escherichia coli., Results and Conclusions: The index was applied to the data set on water quality of the Potrero de los Funes River (San Luis, Argentina), generated during 2 years (2009-2010). Following the RWQI values classification, most of the Potrero de los Funes water samples fell in the good quality range during the study period.

Aim: To review physico-chemical data supplied for commercially available detergents marketed for manual and/or ultrasonic cleansing of reusable dental instruments., Method: Manufacturers/suppliers of commercially available detergents for manual or ultrasonic cleaning of dental instruments within primary dental care were invited to supply product information. A structured questionnaire requested details on a range of physical and chemical properties for each detergent., Results: Seventeen detergent manufacturers/suppliers, encompassing 31 commercially available detergents were identified. Ten of the 17 manufacturers provided information on 23 (74%) of the detergent formulations. Nine detergents were of neutral pH, ten mild alkalis (pH 7.5-10.5) and four strong alkalis (pH >10.5). Sixteen detergents were recommended for ultrasonic and manual cleaning, four stated ultrasonic use and three manual only. Ten detergents cited enzymatic activity as their main mode of action, but only six manufacturers provided detailed information. Four detergents recommended by manufacturers as suitable for manual washing had a strong alkaline pH (>10.5), presenting chemical hazards to users. Two strong alkaline detergents did not warn users of potential adverse effects of such alkaline solutions (corrosion) upon aluminium containing instruments. Only one detergent had investigated the potential toxicity of detergent residuals remaining on instruments after reprocessing., Conclusion: It has proven challenging to collate physico-chemical data on detergents suitable for use in manual and/or ultrasonic cleaning of dental instruments in general dental practice. Standardisation of information on the nature and efficacy of dental detergents in a readily accessible form would be beneficial to dental practice.

Enzymes of several classes used in the formulations of cleaning products were characterized by trypsin digestion followed by HPLC with UV detection. A polymeric monolithic column (ProSwift) was used to optimize the separation of both the intact enzymes and their tryptic digests. This column was adequate for the quality control of raw industrial enzyme concentrates. Then, monolithic and microparticulate columns were compared for peptide analysis. Under optimized conditions, the analysis of tryptic digests of enzymes of different classes commonly used in the formulation of cleaning products was carried out. Number of peaks, peak capacity and global resolution were obtained in order to evaluate the chromatographic performance of each column. Particulate shell-core C18 columns (Kinetex, 2.6 μm) showed the best performance, followed by a silica monolithic column (Chromolith RP-18e) and the conventional C18 packings (Gemini, 5 μm or 3 μm). A polymeric monolithic column (ProSwift) gave the worst performances. The proposed method was satisfactorily applied to the characterization of the enzymes present in spiked detergent bases and commercial cleaners., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: Governmental agencies in the United Kingdom and Scotland have recently instituted guidelines banning physicians' white coats and the wearing of long-sleeved garments to decrease nosocomial transmission of bacteria., Objective: Our aim was to compare the degree of bacterial and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus contamination of physicians' white coats with that of newly laundered, standardized short-sleeved uniforms after an 8-hour workday and to determine the rate at which bacterial contamination of the uniform ensued., Design: The design was a prospective, randomized controlled trial., Setting: The setting was a university-affiliated public safety-net hospital., Participants: One hundred residents and hospitalists on an internal medicine service participated., Intervention: Subjects wore either a physician's white coat or a newly laundered short-sleeved uniform., Measurements: Bacterial colony count and the frequency with which methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus was cultured from both garments over time were measured., Results: No statistically significant differences were found in bacterial or methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus contamination of physicians' white coats compared with newly laundered short-sleeved uniforms or in contamination of the skin at the wrists of physicians wearing either garment. Colony counts of newly laundered uniforms were essentially zero, but after 3 hours of wear they were nearly 50% of those counted at 8 hours., Conclusions: Bacterial contamination occurs within hours after donning newly laundered short-sleeved uniforms. After 8 hours of wear, no difference was observed in the degree of contamination of uniforms versus infrequently laundered white coats. Our data do not support discarding long-sleeved white coats for short-sleeved uniforms that are changed on a daily basis., (Copyright © 2011 Society of Hospital Medicine.)

Introduction and Aims: Cleaning needles/syringes is an important second-line harm reduction strategy, yet there is limited information on practices employed by people who inject drugs in Australia. This study attempts to identify and assess cleaning practices in terms of the techniques involved and the social contexts in which cleaning takes place., Design and Methods: As part of an exploratory qualitative study in south-west Sydney, in-depth interviews and simulated cleaning exercises were conducted with 12 people who inject drugs. Interviews were digitally recorded and transcribed verbatim. Open coding was used to inductively classify data into themes, and data were examined for patterns and variations in the relationships within and between themes., Results: Data indicate that cleaning and reuse of needles/syringes was common in this small sample. The most frequently utilised reagent was cool water. While all participants reported cleaning and reusing only their own equipment, none of the techniques demonstrated would have been sufficient to deactivate human immunodeficiency virus or hepatitis C virus., Discussion and Conclusions: Results suggest that even where cleaning of needles and syringes is widespread, people who inject drugs may not engage in efficacious cleaning. The combination of the complexity of current cleaning messages and a lack of accurate information about efficacious techniques are likely to contribute to poor cleaning practice. Australia could benefit from the development of a nationally consistent cleaning message; however, the evidence would suggest that this would need to be accompanied by strategies designed to simplify and disseminate this information in order to increase the uptake of efficacious cleaning methods by people who inject drugs.

We describe the benefits and limitations of two biosensor approaches for screening solubilization conditions for G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Assays designed for a serial processing instrument (Biacore 2000/3000/T100) and an array platform (Biacore Flexchip) were used to examine how effectively 96 different detergents solubilized the chemokine receptor CCR5 while maintaining its binding activity for a conformationally sensitive Fab (2D7). Using the serial processing instrument, we were able to analyze three samples in each 30-min binding cycle, thereby requiring approximately 24h to screen an entire 96-well plate of conditions. In-line capturing allowed us to normalize the 2D7 binding responses for different receptor capture levels. In contrast, with the array system, we could characterize the effects of all 96 detergents simultaneously, completing the assay in less than 1h. But the current array technology requires that we capture the GPCR preparations off-line, making it more challenging to normalize for receptor capture levels. Also, the array platform is less sensitive than the serial platforms, thereby limiting the size of the analyte to larger molecules (>5000Da). Overall, the two approaches proved to be highly complementary; both assays identified identical detergents that produced active solubilized CCR5 as well as those detergents that either were ineffective solubilizers or inactivated the receptor.

Unlabelled: The purpose of this study was to compare the efficacy, in terms of bacterial biofilm penetration and killing, of some chemical disinfectants against E. coli and P. aeruginosa. This study was undertaken to examine the efficacy of some disinfectants including sodium hypochlorite, povidine and tryad detergent against E. coli biofilms and the efficacy of sodium hypochlorite and tryad detergents against P. aeruginosa. Two species biofilm of E. coli and P. aeruginosa were grown by flowing a dilute tryptic soy broth medium over an inclined cement, polyethylene, fiberglass and galvanized steel slides, 2.25 x 2.25 cm2 for 15 days. Biofilm formation was evaluated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and standard plate counts procedures through selective media for both E. coli and P. aeruginosa. In addition, some disinfectants were selected through disk diffusion susceptibility test. The disinfectants which gave higher zone of inhibitions, were applied to remove of E. coli and P. aeruginosa biofilms from cement, fiberglass, polyethylene and galvanized steel slide surfaces. Results showed that all disinfectants tested gave high inhibition of biofilm adhesion to tank surfaces with some being significant., Conclusion: polyethylene and galvanized steel are strongly recommended as alternative drinking house holds water tanks in Saudi Arabia. The choice of disinfectants or cleaning agents along with optimum concentrations and the time of action is very important when destroying microbes. It is also important that resistance of microbes to some disinfectants and cleaning agents is take into consideration when planning the cleaning process.

Iron powder has previously been demonstrated to be effective in the removal, via magnetic harvesting, of a wide variety of oil contaminants from feathers and plumage. This study investigates the efficacy of magnetic cleansing for the removal from feathers of tarry contamination that has been allowed to weather. Clusters of feathers from Mallard duck (Anas platyrhnchos) and Little Penguin (Eudyptula minor) were completely immersed in a tarry contaminant and allowed to weather from one to fourteen days. The contaminant was removed using a magnetic cleansing protocol and the removal efficacy assessed gravimetrically. For one, seven and fourteen days of weathering, a final removal (after fourteen treatments) of more than 99% and 97% was achieved for duck feathers and penguin feathers, respectively. Repeating the experiments (for a seven-day weathering period) for both duck and penguin feathers, with the judicious application of a pre-conditioner (olive oil), further improved removal efficacy. A convenient method to screen for improved pre-conditioning agents is suggested.

The mycobactericidal and tuberculocidal activities of Korsolex AF against Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium avium-Mycobacterium intracellulare (MAI), Mycobacterium kansasii and Mycobacterium chelonae were determined using quantitative suspension and carrier tests. The effects of organic load and hard water were also considered. A clinical isolate of MAI was the most resistant of the four test organisms. A 2% solution had good mycobactericidal and tuberculocidal activities after 30 min of exposure. Although further evaluation using European standard tests is necessary, we conclude that Korsolex AF appears to be a promising product for the disinfection of hospital instruments contaminated with mycobacteria.

This study is aimed at setting occupational exposure levels for total detergent dust and enzymes in detergent industries. The study population consisted of 795 workers from four enzyme-containing detergent manufacturing plants (A1, A2, B1 and B2), and 156 control workers from an electronic assembly factory. Work environment monitoring was conducted using high volume of air sampler fro measuring the concentration of total dust (mg/m3), and analyzing the level of enzyme (ng/m3) by ELISA method. A standard questionnaires, pulmonary function test, and skin prick test are used to assess health effects. The levels of detergent total dust varied from 0.2 mg/m3 to 12.54 mg/m3. For enzyme levels, in A1, B1 and B2, the concentration ranged from non-detectable to 9.92 ng/m3 and in A2, the concentration was analyzed by enzyme activity methods and was expressed as Gu/m3 (1 Gu/m3 = 16 ng/m3). The concentration is between 0.16-31.36 ng/m3. Non-specific irritation rates in exposed workers were significantly higher than that in controls. Based on the data collected from A1, B1 and control plants, 95% benchmark dose lower bound were calculated as 1.17 mg/m3. The difference of pulmonary function between exposed workers and controls is not significant. The results of SPT showed that neither Savinase- nor Alcalase-induced sensitization was found in controls. The prevalence rates of sensitization for Savinase and Alcalase were ranged between 3.2% and 31% in all enzyme-containing detergent manufacturers investigated. No case of occupational asthma was observed. For total dust, 1 mg/m3 is suggested as permissible concentration-time weighted average (PC-TWA), and 2 mg/m3 as permissible concentration-short term exposure limit (PC-STEL). For the enzyme Subtilisins, 15 ng/m3 is suggested as PC-TWA, and 30 ng/m3 as PC-STEL.

To determine how best to decontaminate the hospital environment of Clostridium difficile, we carried out a cross-over study on two elderly medicine wards to determine whether cleaning with a hypochlorite disinfectant was better than using neutral detergent in reducing the incidence of C. difficile infection (CDI). We examined 1128 environmental samples in two years, 35% of which grew C. difficile. There was a significant decrease of CDI incidence on ward X, from 8.9 to 5.3 cases per 100 admissions (P<0.05) using hypochlorite, but there was no significant effect on ward Y. On ward X the incidence of CDI was significantly associated with the proportion of culture-positive environmental sites (P<0.05). On ward Y the only significant correlation between CDI and C. difficile culture-positive environmental sites was in patient side-rooms (r=0.41, P<0.05). The total daily defined doses of cefotaxime, cephradine and aminopenicillins were similar throughout the trial. These results provide some evidence that use of hypochlorite for environmental cleaning may significantly reduce incidence of CDI, but emphasize the potential for confounding factors.

Objective: Using a proper cleanser for bathing neonatal and infant skin is of prime importance considering the anatomical differences with regard to adult skin. Choosing the right cleanser requires knowledge of the composition of a cleanser as well as the properties of the individual ingredients., Methods: The article discusses the guidelines for cleansing the skin of neonates and infants. The characteristics of an ideal cleanser for pediatric skin have also been enumerated., Results: In India, majority of cleansers recommended for babies do not mention their active ingredients. Their claims of "mildness" have not been substantiated with clinical studies. Cetaphil, a non-soap, lipid-free liquid cleanser, has been clinically proven to be non-irritating by the Chamber Scarification Test. Moreover, Cetaphil also has a pH of less than 7, which does not alter the physiological pH of skin., Conclusion: Hence, Cetaphil should definitely be considered while choosing a cleanser for neonates and infants.

The role of visual examination as the sole acceptance criterion in cleaning validation protocols is explored, including the proper definition of "visual limit" for a given residue. Such a visual limit is specific to the surface the residue is on, and is further defined by viewing conditions, such as lighting, distance, and angle of viewing. A visually clean standard may only be properly utilized if the visual limit is below any scientifically calculated residue limit, such as that determined by a traditional dose-based limit determination. While such an approach, properly applied, has scientific justification and appears to be accepted by the proposed Annex 15 to the European GMPs, the approach is still untested with regulatory authorities.

Objective: The effectiveness of hand-cleansing agents in removing a hospital strain of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from artificially contaminated hands of five volunteers was studied., Design: The products used were plain liquid soap, ethyl alcohol 70% (by weight), 10% povidone-iodine liquid soap (PVP-I), and chlorhexidine gluconate (4%) detergent. The experiments were performed using a Latin square statistical design, with two 5x4 randomized blocks. The removal rates of S aureus cells from contaminated fingertips were estimated by analysis of variance, the response variable being the log10 reduction factor (RF), ie, log10 of the initial counts minus log10 of the final counts. In the first and second blocks, the fingertips of the volunteers were contaminated in mean with 3.76 log10 colony-forming units ([CFU] light-contamination hand) and 6.82 log10 CFU (heavy-contamination hand), respectively., Results: In the first block, there were significant differences between treatments (P<.05). The 10% PVP-I (RF, 3.76) and 70% ethyl alcohol (RF, 3.51) had significantly higher removal rates than plain liquid soap (RF, 1.96) and 4% chlorhexidine (RF, 1.91). In the second block, 10% PVP-I (RF, 4.39) and 70% ethyl alcohol (RF, 3.27) also were significantly more effective than plain liquid soap (RF, 1.77) and 4% chlorhexidine (RF, 1.37; P<.05). Plain liquid soap was significantly more effective than chlorhexidine (4%) detergent., Conclusions: The results suggest that 10% PVP-I and 70% ethyl alcohol may be the most effective hand-cleansing agents for removing methicillin-resistant S aureus strain from either lightly or heavily contaminated hands.

The goal of this study was to evaluate the risk assessment process for quantifying the contribution of contamination in the home to microbial infections. Whereas risks of enteric pathogens spread through food has been assessed, the spread of fecal-oral pathogens through surfaces likely at low rates would be difficult to address through epidemiologic studies. An alternative is quantitative risk assessment. The 4-step process of hazard identification, dose-response, exposure assessment, and risk characterization can be used; however, exposure assessment may follow a complicated pathway consisting of survival and transference. Microbial hazards in the home have focused primarily on enteric bacteria. Dose-response data are available; however, the transfer from the hands to the dose is uncertain. Through day care studies, Shigella has been shown to be transferred in this manner, and a dose-response model is available. By using these data and information on the transference of bacteria between clothing and hands, risk estimates were made for contaminated laundry. Risks were calculated as high as 10 per million population to much lower levels associated with lower excretion rates of the bacteria in the feces. Approximately a 90% and 99% reduction in the probability of disease through laundering and use of a sanitizing detergent, respectively, were suggested by the models. Better data are needed on incidence of disease in the population, excretion rates over the course of an infection, amount of feces spread in the home, distribution of bacteria, survival, and the transfer of the bacteria from surfaces to the hands and to the mouth.

The current state of knowledge of the cleaning of polymer colloids is reviewed with regard to a wide range of cleaning and characterisation techniques. The type, level and quantity of impurities involved with different polymer latex formulations varies widely. Even for similar formulations, differences in the nature and number of functional groups reported are often a consequence of sometimes subtle differences in the cleaning procedures employed. Not only may surface functionality be affected but also monomer and oligomer extraction procedures may lead to morphological changes in the particles. No single technique alone is likely to be able to remove all impurities. Care is needed to avoid the introduction of new impurities from the equipment, materials and water used as well as possible contamination from atmospheric carbon dioxide, bacteria and fungi. These factors also need to be considered in the storage of latex particle standards.

Disinfection, other than by heat, is ineffective unless all surfaces have previously been thoroughly cleaned to remove interfering materials. Cleaning is therefore extremely important as part of a two-stage cleaning and disinfection (sanitation) programme. The author describes the principles of sanitation, the chemicals and equipment involved, and the programme of events to be followed. For food products of 'low risk' (in terms of stable shelf life and safety), traditional sanitation programmes are adequate and in some cases disinfection may not be required. However, disinfection is essential for 'high-risk' food products, but this cannot be effectively undertaken without due consideration of hygienic design and possible cross-contamination. To ensure continued satisfactory performance of a sanitation programme, routine assessments should be undertaken.

Surgical hand scrubs should remove microorganisms from health care professionals' hands and forearms and maintain the lowest possible microbial counts during surgical procedures. This study evaluated the immediate, persistent, and residual efficacy of five surgical hand scrub products. The two chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) products achieved significant immediate reduction in the microorganism count and demonstrated persistent and residual efficacy. The iodophor product exhibited effective immediate and persistent antimicrobial properties but failed to show significant residual effects. The parachlorometaxylenol products demonstrated low levels of immediate and persistent effects and no residual antimicrobial effects. The alcohol product demonstrated low immediate, persistent, and residual effects. The investigator concludes that CHG products are the most favorable surgical hand scrub preparations.

The cleansing effectivity of citric acid solution was significantly better than that of Neomagnol both with respect to the removal of the Smear Layer (SL) and to the number of visible dentinal tubular orifices, however a complete elimination of the SL could not be obtained. Neomagnol seemed to be more effective in the removal of superficial debris and tissue-remnants.

Urgent problems of the interaction of surface-active substances (SAS) with other ingredients under the conditions of chemical soil pollution are discussed, in particular, under the conditions of irrigation of agricultural fields with treated municipal sewage containing detergents. Before the beginning of the irrigation season the content of anion SAS in the arable layer of the soil is 2.02-2.66 mg/kg. In the middle of the vegetation period the quantity of detergents is increased 3-4 times fold. The authors suppose, that SAS may influence translocation of heavy metals from soil into plants. However, this question should be studied more carefully in the conditions of field experience with various SAS concentrations in soil.

Linen was pretreated with 20 remedies for cleaning and maintaining clothes and 20 microliters blood was applied on each sample and dried. Restriction enzyme digest of bloodstain DNA was irregularly inhibited by highly concentrated residues of 2 detergents and a stain-remover and colour-brightener. An additional dialysis step to purify DNA (Gill 1987) reliably prevented disturbance. High molecular DNA was obtained in every case and bandshifts were not observed.

Among methods of prevention of occupational dermatitis, cleanliness is certainly the most important single measure to consider from a preventive point of view. The use of approved industrial skin cleansers should be encouraged. The following aspects are discussed in this paper: the basic requirements of a "good" occupational skin cleanser, the composition of occupational skin cleansers, and the possible side effects due to their use.