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Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the agreement between explosive detection dog (EDD) handlers and a team of veterinarians in assessing body condition score (BCS) and muscle condition score (MCS), hypothesizing significant BCS differences between handlers and veterinarians, and no significant MCS differences in healthy active duty EDDs. Methods: This prospective study analyzed variance and inter-rater intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) of agreement within BCS and MCS assessments collected from the 43 EDDs by four blinded graders; the EDDs' respective handler and three veterinarians with varying levels of veterinary expertise. Results: The results of the study showed that 74.4% of the EDD population was graded as ideal BCS (4 or 5 out of 9) by the handlers compared to 67.44% by the members of the veterinary team; however, the graders scored different subsets of individual EDDs as ideal. Normal MCS (3 out of 3) was assessed in 86.05% (n = 37) of EDDs by the handlers versus in 70.54% by the veterinary team. Conclusion: This study highlights the importance of standardized training and guidelines for BCS and MCS assessments in working dogs to improve agreement between all members of the healthcare team. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The performance of search dogs is limited by their ability to cool down their body because the main cooling ability—panting—contradicts sniffing. We investigated the effect of hot environments on the general body condition of detection dogs working in Kenya. These dogs search for cheetah scats in their arid and hot habitat, where it is especially challenging for them to work. After a working day in the fields, these dogs showed a softer stool, which means a higher stress level, and elevated body temperature during the routine check-in the next morning. Our results showed that the use of search dogs in hot conditions is possible and useful but requires increased attention to prevent heat-related illness. Body temperature is an important physiological parameter that influences the performance of working dogs. The main cooling mechanism in dogs is panting to support evaporative cooling, which reduces the dog's ability to detect scents. In this study, we investigated the general body condition of four detection dogs searching for cheetah scats in a hot environment in northern Kenya. We evaluated the effect on the dog's body temperature post-work in the short term (within hours) and long term (12–24 h). The fecal consistency and mean body temperature of the investigated dogs differed significantly between individuals but not between locations (moderate Nairobi and hot Samburu). On the morning after fieldwork, the dogs showed a significantly increased body temperature (37.9 ± 0.8 °C) compared to resting days (37.5 ± 2.2 °C). In the short term, on the first day of fieldwork, the dog's body temperature (n = 2) decreased after 10 min of rest. On the second consecutive day of fieldwork, the 10-min recovery period was too short, and the body temperature did not decrease significantly. Our data showed that the use of detection dogs in hot conditions is possible and useful but requires increased attention to prevent heat-related illness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Enhancing detection of cryptic snakes is critical for the development of conservation and management strategies; yet, finding methods that provide adequate detection remains challenging. Issues with detecting snakes can be particularly problematic for some species, like the invasive Burmese python (Python bivittatus) in the Florida Everglades. Methods: Using multiple survey methods, we predicted that our ability to detect pythons, larger snakes and all other snakes would be enhanced with the use of live mammalian lures (domesticated rabbits; Oryctolagus cuniculus). Specifically, we used visual surveys, python detection dogs, and time-lapse game cameras to determine if domesticated rabbits were an effective lure. Results: Time-lapse game cameras detected almost 40 times more snakes (n = 375, treatment = 245, control = 130) than visual surveys (n = 10). We recorded 21 independent detections of pythons at treatment pens (with lures) and one detection at a control pen (without lures). In addition, we found larger snakes, and all other snakes were 165% and 74% more likely to be detected at treatment pens compared to control pens, respectively. Time-lapse cameras detected almost 40 times more snakes than visual surveys; we did not detect any pythons with python detection dogs. Conclusions: Our study presents compelling evidence that the detection of snakes is improved by coupling live mammalian lures with time-lapse game cameras. Although the identification of smaller snake species was limited, this was due to pixel resolution, which could be improved by changing the camera focal length. For larger snakes with individually distinctive patterns, this method could potentially be used to identify unique individuals and thus allow researchers to estimate population dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ObjectivesThis study aimed to evaluate the agreement between explosive detection dog (EDD) handlers and a team of veterinarians in assessing body condition score (BCS) and muscle condition score (MCS), hypothesizing significant BCS differences between handlers and veterinarians, and no significant MCS differences in healthy active duty EDDs.MethodsThis prospective study analyzed variance and inter-rater intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) of agreement within BCS and MCS assessments collected from the 43 EDDs by four blinded graders; the EDDs’ respective handler and three veterinarians with varying levels of veterinary expertise.ResultsThe results of the study showed that 74.4% of the EDD population was graded as ideal BCS (4 or 5 out of 9) by the handlers compared to 67.44% by the members of the veterinary team; however, the graders scored different subsets of individual EDDs as ideal. Normal MCS (3 out of 3) was assessed in 86.05% (n = 37) of EDDs by the handlers versus in 70.54% by the veterinary team.ConclusionThis study highlights the importance of standardized training and guidelines for BCS and MCS assessments in working dogs to improve agreement between all members of the healthcare team.

Background Enhancing detection of cryptic snakes is critical for the development of conservation and management strategies; yet, finding methods that provide adequate detection remains challenging. Issues with detecting snakes can be particularly problematic for some species, like the invasive Burmese python (Python bivittatus) in the Florida Everglades. Methods Using multiple survey methods, we predicted that our ability to detect pythons, larger snakes and all other snakes would be enhanced with the use of live mammalian lures (domesticated rabbits; Oryctolagus cuniculus). Specifically, we used visual surveys, python detection dogs, and time-lapse game cameras to determine if domesticated rabbits were an effective lure. Results Time-lapse game cameras detected almost 40 times more snakes (n = 375, treatment = 245, control = 130) than visual surveys (n = 10). We recorded 21 independent detections of pythons at treatment pens (with lures) and one detection at a control pen (without lures). In addition, we found larger snakes, and all other snakes were 165% and 74% more likely to be detected at treatment pens compared to control pens, respectively. Time-lapse cameras detected almost 40 times more snakes than visual surveys; we did not detect any pythons with python detection dogs. Conclusions Our study presents compelling evidence that the detection of snakes is improved by coupling live mammalian lures with time-lapse game cameras. Although the identification of smaller snake species was limited, this was due to pixel resolution, which could be improved by changing the camera focal length. For larger snakes with individually distinctive patterns, this method could potentially be used to identify unique individuals and thus allow researchers to estimate population dynamics.

Body temperature is an important physiological parameter that influences the performance of working dogs. The main cooling mechanism in dogs is panting to support evaporative cooling, which reduces the dog’s ability to detect scents. In this study, we investigated the general body condition of four detection dogs searching for cheetah scats in a hot environment in northern Kenya. We evaluated the effect on the dog’s body temperature post-work in the short term (within hours) and long term (12–24 h). The fecal consistency and mean body temperature of the investigated dogs differed significantly between individuals but not between locations (moderate Nairobi and hot Samburu). On the morning after fieldwork, the dogs showed a significantly increased body temperature (37.9 ± 0.8 °C) compared to resting days (37.5 ± 2.2 °C). In the short term, on the first day of fieldwork, the dog’s body temperature (n = 2) decreased after 10 min of rest. On the second consecutive day of fieldwork, the 10-min recovery period was too short, and the body temperature did not decrease significantly. Our data showed that the use of detection dogs in hot conditions is possible and useful but requires increased attention to prevent heat-related illness.

Previous studies have found that infrequent targets can reduce dogs' vigilance. The purpose of this study was to develop a laboratory model to evaluate the effects of infrequent targets on dogs' search behavior and performance. Dogs (n = 18) were trained to detect smokeless powder in an automated olfactometer in two distinct rooms ("operational" and "training"). During baseline, the dogs received five daily sessions at a high target odor frequency (90%) in both rooms. Subsequently, the frequency of the target odor was decreased to 10% only in the "operational" room but remained at 90% in the training room. Last, the odor prevalence was returned to 90% in both rooms. All dogs showed a significant decrement in detection performance in the operational room when the target odor frequency was decreased but simultaneusly mantained high performance in the training room. This decrement was largely due to decreases in adequate search behavior. All dogs recovered performance when the odor frequency was increased again to 90%. Trial accuracy was associated with tail position, search score, latency, and duration of environmentally directed behaviors. The data show that low target odor prevalence significantly reduced search behavior and performance and that there are behaviors that can be used by handlers to assess their dog's search state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sinonasal-inverted papilloma (SNIP) is a rare, benign tumor of the sinonasal tract. Although these tumors are inherently benign, they are prone to malignant transformation and are associated with an unusually high rate of recurrence, even after complete surgical resection. As such, these patients must be followed long-term to monitor for recurrence or the presence of cancer. Unfortunately, there are currently no standards for long-term surveillance, and protocols usually require routine radiography and/or nasal endoscopy, which are not highly sensitive or specific, are time consuming, expensive, and confer morbidity to the patient. There is evidence that suggests that SNIP is associated with a uniquely detectable volatile metabolite signature. This study investigates the ability of four privately owned dogs to learn to identify the presence of SNIP in patients based on blood plasma samples. This type of medical detection is currently being used to create early diagnostic tools for other disease processes, which suggests promising results for the outcome of this study. Blood/plasma and nasal secretions were collected from both patients with SNIP, and healthy age-, sex-, and smoking-status-matched controls. Training was conducted twice weekly using errorless learning techniques that allowed the dogs to utilize odor concentration to guide their understanding of the target odor. After further training, a subsequent double-blind testing phase was conducted, in which the dogs' ability to expand recognition of the target odor from blood plasma samples to nasal secretion samples was assessed. Analysis of recorded training sessions revealed that the dogs exhibited successful odor discrimination between SNIP-positive plasma samples and SNIP-negative controls. Their pattern of behavior change also suggested similarity between SNIP odor in plasma and nasal secretions. [Display omitted] • Trained detection dogs can differentiate between blood plasma from people with sinonasal inverted papillomas (SNIP) and healthy blood plasma. • Dogs differentiated positive and negative SNIP odor in blood plasma, even though they were trained on a very small sample set. • These trained detection dogs demonstrate that there is similarity between the SNIP-positive odor from the medium of blood plasma to the SNIP-positive odor in the medium of nasal secretions, suggesting that may be a common SNIP odor biomarker between the two sample types. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Susceptibility to and infection with SARS-CoV-2 in companion animals has been well-documented throughout the COVID-19 pandemic. Surveillance for the virus in dogs has largely been focused on household pets; however, other canine populations may also be impacted. We partnered with a local veterinary hospital with a high working dog patient volume to conduct viral and neutralizing antibody testing in working dogs and identify potential risk factors in the dog’s work and home environments. Surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 in law enforcement and security working dogs in Arizona found 24.81% (32/129) of dogs to be seropositive. Thirteen dogs presenting with clinical signs or with reported exposure to COVID-19 in the 30 days prior to sample collection were also tested by PCR; all samples were negative. 90.7% (n = 117) of dogs were reported to be asymptomatic or have no change in performance at the time of sampling. Two dogs (1.6%) had suspected anosmia as reported by their handlers; one of which was seropositive. Known exposure to the dog’s COVID-19 positive handler or household member was identified as a significant risk factor. Demographics factors including sex, altered status, and type of work were not associated with canine seropositivity. Further work is warranted to understand the impact of SARS-CoV-2 and other infectious diseases in working dogs.

Simple Summary: Sniffer dogs can diagnose lung cancer. However, the diagnostic yields of different samples and training methods for lung cancer remain undetermined. Six dogs were trained in three stages with the aim of improving the diagnostic yield. The findings showed the dogs had a very low response rate to urine target samples in the first and second stages training. Using exhaled air samples for training them to recognize exhaled samples, the diagnosis rate in lung cancer patients was 71.3% to 97.6% (mean 83.9%), whereas the false positive rate of lung cancer in the healthy group was 0.5% to 27.6% (mean 7.6%). The sensitivity and specificity of using exhaled breath target training (91.7% and 85.1%) were higher than using lung cancer tissue training (50.4% and 50.1%). Additionally, sniffer dogs diagnose lung cancer, independent of staging, pathologic type, and tumor location. Using sniffer dogs to screen human lung cancer may have clinical potential. Introduction: Sniffer dogs can diagnose lung cancer. However, the diagnostic yields of different samples and training methods for lung cancer remain undetermined. Objective: Six dogs were trained in three stages with the aim of improving the diagnostic yield of lung cancer by comparing training methods and specimens. Methods: The pathological tissues of 53 lung cancer patients and 6 non-lung cancer patients in the Department of Thoracic Surgery of Kaohsiung Chang Gung Hospital were collected, and the exhaled breath samples and urine samples were collected. Urine and exhaled breath samples were also collected from 20 healthy individuals. The specimens were sent to the Veterinary Department of Pingtung University of Science and Technology. Results: The dogs had a very low response rate to urine target samples in the first and second stages of training. The experimental results at the second stage of training found that after lung cancer tissue training, dogs were less likely to recognize lung cancer and healthy controls than through breath target training: the response rate to exhaled breathing target samples was about 8–55%; for urine target samples, it was only about 5–30%. When using exhaled air samples for training, the diagnosis rate of these dogs in lung cancer patients was 71.3% to 97.6% (mean 83.9%), while the false positive rate of lung cancer in the healthy group was 0.5% to 27.6% (mean 7.6%). Compared with using breathing target samples for training, the diagnosis rate of dogs trained with lung cancer tissue lung cancer was significantly lower (p < 0.05). The sensitivity and specificity of lung cancer tissue training (50.4% and 50.1%) were lower than the exhaled breath target training (91.7% and 85.1%). There is no difference in lung cancer diagnostic rate by sniff dogs among lung cancer histological types, location, and staging. Conclusion: Training dogs using breathing target samples to train dogs then to recognize exhaled samples had a higher diagnostic rate than training using lung cancer tissue samples or urine samples. Dogs had a very low response rate to urine samples in our study. Six canines were trained on lung cancer tissues and breathing target samples of lung cancer patients, then the diagnostic rate of the recognition of exhaled breath of lung cancer and non-lung cancer patients were compared. When using exhaled air samples for training, the diagnosis rate of these dogs in lung cancer patients was 71.3% to 97.6% (mean 83.9%), while the false positive rate of lung cancer in the healthy group was 0.5% to 27.6% (mean 7.6%). There was a significant difference in the average diagnosis rate of individual dog and overall dogs between the lung cancer group and the healthy group (p < 0.05). When using lung cancer tissue samples for training, lung cancer diagnosis rate of these dogs among lung cancer patients was only 15.5% to 40.9% (mean 27.7%). Compared with using breathing target samples for training, the diagnosis rate of dogs trained with lung cancer tissue lung cancer was significantly lower (p < 0.05). The sensitivity and specificity of lung cancer tissue training (50.4% and 50.1%) were lower than the exhaled breath target training (91.7% and 85.1%). The diagnostic rate of lung cancer by sniffer dogs has nothing to do with the current stage of lung cancer, pathologic type, and the location of tumor mass. Even in stage IA lung cancer, well-trained dogs can have a diagnostic rate of 100%. Using sniffer dogs to screen early lung cancer may have good clinical and economic benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wolves are currently recolonising their historic range in France. The collection of scats is a widely used a non-invasive survey method to monitor wolf population size. However, seasonal changes in wolf faecal deposition paterns might afect the results of surveys. We used a detection dog and camera trapping (CT) to compare wolf scat detectability during winter and the nursing season. We collected 113 scats deposited by adult wolves at 29 marking sites on forest roads in the Sainte-Baume Regional Park, Provence, France. After parturition, the mean number of adult wolf scats increased by 160% inside the nursing territory and decreased by 80% outside of it. Around the time the pups are born, changes in faecal deposition patterns of adults make it easier to find scats around the wolf den (87% probability per wolf marking site) and harder to find scats outside the nursing territory (11% probability). During winter, the chance to find scats is equal (38 to 40% probability per wolf marking site) inside vs. outside the nursing territory. The combined use of a detection dog and camera traps allowed us to gather data on wolf defecation patterns non-invasively. Detectability of adult wolf scats during the nursing season is highly variable compared to winter due to seasonal behavioural changes affecting scat location. We conclude that surveys to collect samples and estimate wolf population size should be conducted exclusively during winter to avoid sampling biases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Odor generalization is essential for detection dogs. Regardless of its importance, limited research is available on detection dog odor generalization. The objectives of this study were (1) evaluate the use of an intermittent schedule of reinforcement to assess generalization in dogs and (2) evaluate olfactory generalization from a single exemplar of smokeless powder (SP). Dogs (N = 5) were trained to detect SP in an automated olfactometer under an intermittent schedule of reinforcement where only 60% of correct responses were reinforced. After training, eight non-reinforced probe trials were inserted within a session. A total of 15 testing odors were evaluated across 15 consecutive sessions (one odor/session). Six of the testing odors were control and the remaining testing odors were objects indirectly exposed to SP, objects that contained or were directly exposed to SP, single-base SP and diphenylamine (the main volatile present in the headspace of SP). Dogs' response rate to all testing odors except for the cotton gauzes and t-shirt cloths exposed to the headspace of SP, the simulated IED, and Getxent tubes exposed to direct contact with SP were statistically lower than their response rate of actual SP. The response rate to SP was not different across all 15 testing sessions suggesting that the intermittent schedule of reinforcement, maintained dog motivation and performance. Data show that the outlined method is a good approach to study generalization in detection dogs. These results also highlight dog generalization to SP varieties and associated odors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Precise abundance estimates of large mammals are important for effective conservation, harvest, and conflict management. Determining abundance of wide‐ranging, herding ungulate species has presented a unique challenge to wildlife managers because of factors such as dense forest, elusive behavior, and heterogeneity in density across the landscape. Roosevelt elk (Cervus canadensis roosevelti) populations in Northern California, USA, are no exception to these challenges, and as the elk population has grown, so has human–wildlife conflict, necessitating the need for efficient and repeatable methods to determine population abundance for management decisions. We explored non‐invasive genetic sampling combined with spatial capture‐recapture (SCR) as an alternative for monitoring populations that are difficult to observe directly. We combined an SCR model with a binomial point process and an unstructured single survey search method to estimate elk abundance in Northern California via Bayesian inference. We searched open grassy hillsides for female‐calf groups and used a detection dog team to search forested areas to increase the number of detections of males and other solitary individuals. For the SCR analysis, we used sex and survey effort as detection covariates, and used a trap‐level random effect to account for overdispersion in the count data from the herding behavior of elk. Our population estimate (N ± SD) for the study area was 618 ± 36.34 individuals (95% Bayesian credible interval = 551–693) with a mean density of 1.09 ± 0.06 elk/km2. Our work demonstrates a potential method to estimate population size of ungulates in an area that is not conducive to traditional monitoring methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The detection dogs are well-known for their excellent capabilities to sense different kinds of smells, which can play an important role in completing various searching and rescuing missions. The recent studies have demonstrated that the excellent olfactory function of detection dogs might be related with the gut microbes via the bidirectional communications between the gastrointestinal tract and the brain. In this study, the gut microbial communities of three types of breeds of detection dogs (Springer Spaniel, Labrador Retriever, and German Shepherd) were studied and compared. The results revealed that the richness and the diversity of gut microbiome German Shepherd dogs were significantly higher than the Labrador Retriever dogs and the Springer Spaniel dogs. At the phylum level, the most predominant gut microbial communities of the detection dogs were comprised of Fusobacteriota, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Campilobacterota, and Actinobacteriota. At the genus level the most predominant gut microbial communities were comprised of Fusobacterium, Megamonas, Prevotella, Alloprevotella, Bacteroides, Haemophilus, Anaerobiospirillum, Helicobacter, Megasphaera, Peptoclostridium, Phascolarctobacterium , and Streptococcus. However, the gut microbial communities of the three dogs group were also obviously different. The mean relative abundance of Fusobacterium, Prevotella, Alloprevotella, Megamonas, Bacteroides , and Phascolarctobacterium presented significant differences in the three groups. According to the portraits and characteristics of the gut microbiome in young detection dogs, multiple kinds of nutritional interventions could be applied to manipulate the gut microbiota, with the aim of improving the health states and the olfactory performances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The detection dogs are well-known for their excellent capabilities to sense different kinds of smells, which can play an important role in completing various searching and rescuing missions. The recent studies have demonstrated that the excellent olfactory function of detection dogs might be related with the gut microbes via the bidirectional communications between the gastrointestinal tract and the brain. In this study, the gut microbial communities of three types of breeds of detection dogs (Springer Spaniel, Labrador Retriever, and German Shepherd) were studied and compared. The results revealed that the richness and the diversity of gut microbiome German Shepherd dogs were significantly higher than the Labrador Retriever dogs and the Springer Spaniel dogs. At the phylum level, the most predominant gut microbial communities of the detection dogs were comprised of Fusobacteriota, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Campilobacterota, and Actinobacteriota. At the genus level the most predominant gut microbial communities were comprised of Fusobacterium, Megamonas, Prevotella, Alloprevotella, Bacteroides, Haemophilus, Anaerobiospirillum, Helicobacter, Megasphaera, Peptoclostridium, Phascolarctobacterium, and Streptococcus. However, the gut microbial communities of the three dogs group were also obviously different. The mean relative abundance of Fusobacterium, Prevotella, Alloprevotella, Megamonas, Bacteroides, and Phascolarctobacterium presented significant differences in the three groups. According to the portraits and characteristics of the gut microbiome in young detection dogs, multiple kinds of nutritional interventions could be applied to manipulate the gut microbiota, with the aim of improving the health states and the olfactory performances.

The interdiction of restricted and hazardous biological agents presents challenges for any detection method due to the inherent complexity of sample type and accessibility. Detection capabilities for this category of agents are limited and restricted in their mobility, adaptability and efficiency. The potential for identifying biological agents through a volatile organic compound (VOC) signature presents an opportunity to use detection dogs in a real-time mobile capacity for surveillance and screening strategies. However, the safe handling and access to the materials needed for training detection dogs on restricted or hazardous biological agents prevents its broader application in this field. This study evaluated the use of a polymer-based training aid in a viral detection model using bovine viral diarrhea virus mimicking biosafety level 3+ agent conditions. After the biological agent-based odor was absorbed into the polymer, the aid was rendered safe for handling through a rigorous sterilization process. The viral culture-based training aid was then used to train a cohort of detection dogs (n = 6) to discriminate agent-based target odor in culture from relevant distractor odors including non-target biological agent-based odors. Following culture-based training, dogs were tested for generalization to aids with infected animal sample-based odors across five sample types (fecal, blood, nasal, saliva, and urine). Within the context of the polymer-based training aid system, dogs were successfully trained to detect and discriminate a representative biological viral agent-based odor from distractor odors with a 97.22% (±2.78) sensitivity and 97.11% (±1.94) specificity. Generalization from the agent-based odor to sample-based odors ranged from 65.40% (±8.98) to 91.90 % (±6.15) sensitivity and 88.61% (±1.46) to 96.00% (±0.89) specificity across the sample types. The restrictive nature for mimicking the access and handling of a BSL 3+ agent presented challenges that required a strict study design uncommon to standard detection dog training and odor presentation. This study demonstrates the need to further evaluate the utility and challenges of training detection dogs to alert to biological samples using safe and manageable training aids.

There is growing evidence that prey perceive the risk of predation and alter their behavior in response, resulting in changes in spatial distribution and potential fitness consequences. Previous approaches to mapping predation risk across a landscape quantify predator space use to estimate potential predator‐prey encounters, yet this approach does not account for successful predator attack resulting in prey mortality. An exception is a prey kill site that reflects an encounter resulting in mortality, but obtaining information on kill sites is expensive and requires time to accumulate adequate sample sizes.We illustrate an alternative approach using predator scat locations and their contents to quantify spatial predation risk for elk (Cervus canadensis) from multiple predators in the Rocky Mountains of Alberta, Canada. We surveyed over 1300 km to detect scats of bears (Ursus arctos/U. americanus), cougars (Puma concolor), coyotes (Canis latrans), and wolves (C. lupus). To derive spatial predation risk, we combined predictions of scat‐based resource selection functions (RSFs) weighted by predator abundance with predictions that a predator‐specific scat in a location contained elk. We evaluated the scat‐based predictions of predation risk by correlating them to predictions based on elk kill sites. We also compared scat‐based predation risk on summer ranges of elk following three migratory tactics for consistency with telemetry‐based metrics of predation risk and cause‐specific mortality of elk.We found a strong correlation between the scat‐based approach presented here and predation risk predicted by kill sites and (r =.98, p <.001). Elk migrating east of the Ya Ha Tinda winter range were exposed to the highest predation risk from cougars, resident elk summering on the Ya Ha Tinda winter range were exposed to the highest predation risk from wolves and coyotes, and elk migrating west to summer in Banff National Park were exposed to highest risk of encountering bears, but it was less likely to find elk in bear scats than in other areas. These patterns were consistent with previous estimates of spatial risk based on telemetry of collared predators and recent cause‐specific mortality patterns in elk.A scat‐based approach can provide a cost‐efficient alternative to kill sites of quantifying broad‐scale, spatial patterns in risk of predation for prey particularly in multiple predator species systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract There is growing evidence that prey perceive the risk of predation and alter their behavior in response, resulting in changes in spatial distribution and potential fitness consequences. Previous approaches to mapping predation risk across a landscape quantify predator space use to estimate potential predator‐prey encounters, yet this approach does not account for successful predator attack resulting in prey mortality. An exception is a prey kill site that reflects an encounter resulting in mortality, but obtaining information on kill sites is expensive and requires time to accumulate adequate sample sizes. We illustrate an alternative approach using predator scat locations and their contents to quantify spatial predation risk for elk (Cervus canadensis) from multiple predators in the Rocky Mountains of Alberta, Canada. We surveyed over 1300 km to detect scats of bears (Ursus arctos/U. americanus), cougars (Puma concolor), coyotes (Canis latrans), and wolves (C. lupus). To derive spatial predation risk, we combined predictions of scat‐based resource selection functions (RSFs) weighted by predator abundance with predictions that a predator‐specific scat in a location contained elk. We evaluated the scat‐based predictions of predation risk by correlating them to predictions based on elk kill sites. We also compared scat‐based predation risk on summer ranges of elk following three migratory tactics for consistency with telemetry‐based metrics of predation risk and cause‐specific mortality of elk. We found a strong correlation between the scat‐based approach presented here and predation risk predicted by kill sites and (r = .98, p

Currently, there is a need to develop technology that facilitates and improves detection dog research. The aim of this research was to develop an automated computer-driven olfactory line-up task. The apparatus consisted of three olfactometers. Each olfactometer was equipped with flow meters to regulate air flow and dilution and six solenoid valves connected to odor jars. Each olfactometer generated an odor which was carried to an odor port where the dogs sample it. The olfactometer's valves were activated by a microcontroller, and a Python program was built to control each olfactometer and randomize and balance the odor presentation. Dogs (N = 12) received one or two 40-trial training sessions in a day where they progressed through a series of training phases where they learned to detect and alert to double-base smokeless powder (SP). An “alert” consisted of a 4-s nose hold. This was measured by infrared sensors in the ports. For each trial, the apparatus recorded dogs' search latency, sniff time, port entries, and response. All this information was automatically recorded in a csv file. A photoionization detector (PID) and solid-phase microextraction followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (SPME-GC/MS) were used to evaluate the odor dynamics and to instrumentally verify odor presence and clearance. A control test was conducted at the end of the training to ensure dogs were alerting exclusively to the odorant. All 12 dogs readily learned to operate the apparatus within 23 days, and all exceeded 85% accuracy. Control tests indicated dogs were leveraging only olfactory cues and not unintentional cues such as auditory cues from the apparatus. Analytical data showed that odor was detected in the port immediately after the activation of a valve and that odor clearance occurred immediately after the valve was closed. The apparatus developed was easy to operate by the dogs and allowed substantial data collection using double-blind testing procedures in a very short period at an affordable cost point for research equipment (~$5,000 USD). The apparatus may prove to be a useful research tool to provide optimal odor stimuli control, ensure double-blind conditions, reduce labor, and significantly increase the amount of data collected.

Detection dogs are required to detect trace quantities of substances, many times in the parts per billion or parts per trillion concentration range. Frequently, detection of trace quantities is not explicitly trained but rather assumed when dogs show proficiency at higher concentrations to which they are trained. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of the odor concentration of the training sample on the minimum concentration dogs will subsequently detect. We expected that dogs may not spontaneously generalize to trace odor concentration when trained with higher concentrations, but when trained to a range of lower concentrations, dogs will show superior detection to lower untrained concentrations. A total of 11 dogs were randomly assigned to 2 groups and were trained to alert to isoamyl acetate at 0.01% odor dilution (v/v with mineral oil) using a 3-alternative forced choice test. Once reaching proficiency, odor detection threshold was assessed using a 2-down 1-up descending staircase procedure. Next, experimental dogs received training with systematically lower concentrations of isoamyl acetate and threshold re-assessed. Control dogs were yoked to experimental dogs in terms of training time, but only received training to the 0.01% dilution between threshold assessments. Experimental dogs showed significantly improved detection thresholds, outperforming control dogs by detecting an average dilution about 100-fold lower. Results suggest that explicitly training for lower concentrations is critical for generalization for trace odor detection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rating scales are widely used to rate working dog behavior and performance. Whilst behaviour scales have been extensively validated, instruments used to rate ability have usually been designed by training and practitioner organizations, and often little consideration has been given to how seemingly insignificant aspects of the scale design might alter the validity of the results obtained. Here we illustrate how manipulating one aspect of rating scale design, the provision of verbal benchmarks or labels (as opposed to just a numerical scale), can affect the ability of observers to distinguish between differing levels of search dog performance in an operational environment. Previous studies have found evidence for range restriction (using only part of the scale) in raters' use of the scales and variability between raters in their understanding of the traits used to measures performance. As provision of verbal benchmarks has been shown to help raters in a variety of disciplines to select appropriate scale categories (or scores), it may be predicted that inclusion of verbal benchmarks will bring raters' conceptualization of the traits closer together, increasing agreement between raters, as well as improving the ability of observers to distinguish between differing levels of search dog performance and reduce range restriction. To test the value of verbal benchmarking we compared inter-rater reliability, raters' ability to discriminate between different levels of search dog performance, and their use of the whole scale before and after being presented with benchmarked scales for the same traits. Raters scored the performance of two separate types of explosives search dog (High Assurance Search (HAS) and Vehicle Search (VS) dogs), from short (~30 s) video clips, using 11 previously validated traits. Taking each trait in turn, for the first five clips raters were asked to give a score from 1, representing the lowest amount of the trait evident to 5, representing the highest. Raters were given a list of adjective-based benchmarks (e.g., very low, low, intermediate, high, very high) and scored a further five clips for each trait. For certain traits, the reliability of scoring improved when benchmarks were provided (e.g., Motivation and Independence), indicating that their inclusion may potentially reduce ambivalence in scoring, ambiguity of meanings, and cognitive difficulty for raters. However, this effect was not universal, with the ratings of some traits remaining unchanged (e.g., Control), or even reducing in reliability (e.g., Distraction). There were also some differences between VS and HAS (e.g., Confidence reliability increased for VS raters and decreased for HAS raters). There were few improvements in the spread of scores across the range, but some indication of more favorable scoring. This was a small study of operational handlers and trainers utilizing training video footage from realistic operational environments, and there are potential cofounding effects. We discuss possible causal factors, including issues specific to raters and possible deficiencies in the chosen benchmarks, and suggest ways to further improve the effectiveness of rating scales. This study illustrates why it is vitally important to validate all aspects of rating scale design, even if they may seem inconsequential, as relatively small changes to the amount and type of information provided to raters can have both positive and negative impacts on the data obtained.

Purpose: We have previously demonstrated that dogs can be trained to distinguish the urine of patients with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) from that of healthy controls based on olfaction. Encouraged by these promising results, we wanted to investigate if a detection dog could work as a screening tool for OSA. The objective of this study was to prospectively assess the dogs' ability to identify sleep apnea in patients with OSA suspicion. Methods: Urine samples were collected from 50 patients suspected of having OSA. The urine sample was classified as positive for OSA when the patient had a respiratory event index of 5/h or more. The accuracy of two trained dogs in identifying OSA was tested in a prospective blinded setting. Results: Both of the dogs correctly detected approximately half of the positive and negative samples. There were no statistically significant differences in the dogs' ability to recognize more severe cases of OSA, as compared to milder cases. Conclusion: According to our study, dogs cannot be used to screen for OSA in clinical settings, most likely due to the heterogenic nature of OSA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Detection dogs are commonly trained and tested under conditions in which the handler or the evaluator knows the true presence or absence of a target odor. Previous research has demonstrated that when handlers are deceived and led to believe that a target odor is present, more false alerts occur. However, many detection teams operate under unknown conditions, and it remains unclear how handler knowledge (or lack thereof) of odor presence/absence influences the dog's behavior. The aim of this study was to evaluate if knowing the number of hides placed influenced detection dog performance in an applied search environment. Professional (n = 20) and sport (n = 39) detection handler-dog teams were asked to search three separate areas (area 1 had one hide, area 2 had one hide, area 3 was blank). Handlers in the Unknown Group were not told any information on the number of hides whereas the Known Group were told there was a total of two hides in the three areas. The sport Unknown Group spent a longer duration (69.04 s) searching in area 3 compared to the sport Known Group (p = 0.004). Further, sport dogs in the Unknown group looked back to the handler more frequently. When a miss did occur, dogs of both sport and professional handlers showed an increase interest in the location of the target odor compared to a comparison location. Critically, however, there was no difference in false alerts between the Known Group and Unknown Group for sport or professional handlers. In a second experiment, fourteen professional, and thirty-nine sport teams from Experiment 1 conducted an additional search double-blind and an additional search single-blind. Both sport and professional-handler dog teams had statistically similar accuracy rate under single and double blind conditions. Overall, when handlers knew the number of hides, it led to significant changes in search behavior of the detection team but did not influence the overall false alert rates.

The use of detection dogs to effectively monitor bird and bat fatalities at wind farms is becoming increasingly popular. All studies to date agree that dogs outperform human searchers at finding bird and bat carcasses around wind turbines; however, it remains unclear how characteristics of the carcass and environmental conditions during the search may influence detection.We investigate the effect of carcass size, vegetation characteristics and weather conditions on the probability of detecting a carcass, for both dogs and humans, using data from the monitoring program of a wind farm in Spain.A generalized linear mixed model reveals a high performance of dogs (~80% detection rate), with no clear influence of any of the variables analysed. Humans, on the contrary, were markedly affected by the size of the carcass and to some extent, by the vegetation structure. Humans performed poorly at detecting small carcasses (~20% detection rate), more so in closed vegetation.Synthesis and applications. Our results provide evidence that dogs perform with high success rates at detecting bird and bat carcasses of different sizes under a wide range of environmental conditions. Humans, by contrast, were very poor at detecting all but the largest carcasses in open areas. We find the use of detection dogs at wind farms to be a robust and cost‐effective alternative to using human searchers, most notably, when the focus is on the monitoring of fatalities of small, rare or inconspicuous species in closed vegetation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monitoring changes in populations is fundamental for effective management. The West European hedgehog (Erinaceus europeaus) is of conservation concern in the UK because of recent substantial declines. Surveying hedgehogs is, however, problematic because of their nocturnal, cryptic behaviour. We compared the effectiveness of three methods (infra-red thermal camera, specialist search dog, spotlight) for detecting hedgehogs in three different habitats. Significantly more hedgehogs were detected, and at greater distance, using the camera and dog than the spotlight in amenity grassland and pasture; no hedgehogs were detected in woodland. Increasing ground cover reduced detection distances, with most detections (59.6%) associated with bare soil or mown grass; the dog was the only method that detected hedgehogs in vegetation taller than the target species' height. The additional value of surveying with a detection dog is most likely to be realised in areas where badgers (Meles meles), an intra-guild predator, are and/or where sufficient ground cover is present; both would allow hedgehogs to forage further from refuge habitats such as hedgerows. Further consideration of the effectiveness of detection dogs for finding hedgehogs in nests, as well as developing techniques for monitoring this species in woodland, is warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Keywords: cost-benefit analysis; cost-effectiveness; detection dog; eradication; invasive species; scent; threatened species; análisis de costo-beneficio; erradicación; especie amenazada; especie invasora; olfato; perro detector; rentabilidad Perhaps the most useful of the studies that reported costs were those that compared detection dog costs to alternative techniques and provided a full itemization of the expense categories. A number of studies purchased dogs either from shelters or from professional sources for the purpose of the study; dogs sometimes worked with multiple handlers. Eleven studies compared dogs with human surveyors, although 3 of these simply made limited comments without providing supporting evidence (e.g., that dogs can reduce time and cost compared with human-based surveys [Nielsen et al. [54]], dogs are 5 times faster than humans [Bennett [7]], and dogs are 19 times faster than humans [Cristescu et al. [16]]). [Extracted from the article]

The red imported fire ant (RIFA, Solenopsis invicta) is an exotic aggressive pest that is notorious for its ability to seriously harm humans and animals, cause economic loss to agriculture, and damage ecosystems. This is the first study to validate the capability of filter paper adsorption as a feasible odor bearer of RIFAs and evaluate its use in detection dog training. Two live RIFA-experienced detection dogs achieved a mean 92% positive indication rate (PIR) on RIFA-scented papers with a relatively low false response rate (0.8%). The similar accuracies in recognizing live RIFAs (96%) and scented papers (92%) suggest that a filter paper is an effective odor reservoir. After training with live RIFA and scented filter papers, both RIFA-experienced and inexperienced detection dogs successfully indicated filter papers that were scented with at least 10 RIFAs for 4 h with a high PIR (>93%) and low false response rate (2%). Detection dogs correctly recognized the filter papers scented by 10 RIFAs for 24 h with a 97.6% PIR. Even for scented samples stored at −20 °C and 4 °C for 13 weeks, the positive indication rates (PIRs) were as high as 90%. These results suggest that filter paper is an effective RIFA odor bearer, and the scent can be maintained at least 13 weeks for dog identification. After RIFA-scented paper training, detection dogs showed high (>95%) PIRs for both RIFA-scented paper and live RIFAs and also successfully performed field studies. Using filter paper as a RIFA odor bearer is an effective and economical method for detection dog training and RIFA identification.

RESUMO. Micheletti M.H., de Paula A.C., de Sá M.E.P. & de Melo C.B. [Detection dogs: a brief review about the use of the canine nose.] Cães de detecção: uma breve revisão sobre o uso do nariz canino. Revista Brasileira de Medicina Veterinária, 38(4):387-392, 2016. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Animais, Faculdade de Agronomia e Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Brasília, Campus Universitário Darcy Ribeiro, ICC Sul, Asa Norte, Brasília, DF 70910-970, Brasil. E-mails: michelettimh@gmail.com; cristianomelo@unb.br O objetivo desse estudo foi apresentar as principais características anatômicas e fisiológicas do sistema olfativo dos cães, que fazem deles uma ferramenta ágil e confiável para a detecção de odores de interesse para o homem. Foram avaliados também os usos atuais de cães de detecção e os fatores ambientais, operacionais e comportamentais que podem afetar o seu desempenho durante as tarefas de detecção de odores.

Two explosive detection dogs were deployed to search a suspicious bag, and failed to detect 13 kg of explosive within. The aim of this research was to further evaluate this incident. First, dog teams (N = 7) searched four bags in a similar scenario. One bag contained the same 13 kg of explosive, two bags were blanks, and the other contained the training sample that the agency routinely used for training. All dogs detected the training sample, but most (5/7) did not alert to the 13 kg sample. Subsequently, dogs received two trials in a line up with a 30 g subsample of the explosive to evaluate whether they could generalize to a smaller quantity. Most dogs (6/7) alerted to the subsample at least once. Finally, dogs were trained with the 30 g subsample and later tested with the 13 kg sample. Only three dogs spontaneously generalized to the large sample after training with the small subsample. Dogs’ alert rate to the 13 kg sample was improved with training in subsequent trials with the 13 kg sample. This result indicates that explosive detection dogs may not generalize to a target odor at a significantly higher quantity relative to the one used in training, highlighting the importance of conducting such training.

Behavioral characteristics are the most influential factor in the success of a working dog. The need for highly capable detection dogs continues to rise; but reliable methods for early selection are lacking. The current study aimed to assess the reliability and validity of a behavioral test for assessing detection dog suitability. A cohort of candidate detection dog puppies (n = 60) were tested at 3; 5; and 11 months of age; as well as at the completion of training at approximately one year. Tests were designed to assess important detection dog behavioral characteristics such as search ability and fearfulness. Inter-rater reliability was high between independent observers. Convergent validity was demonstrated by comparing Principal Component Analysis (PCA) scores from the behavior test to trainer ratings using the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ) and a survey of detection dog traits. Performance on the behavior test predicted adult selection as a detection dog as early as 3 months. The methods reported will be valuable for improving selection measures and enhancing collaborations across breeding programs in order to increase the availability of highly capable detection dogs.

Conservation detection dogs (CDDs) are trained to locate biological material from plants and animals of interest to conservation efforts and are often more effective and economical than other detection methods. However, the financial costs of developing and appropriately caring for CDDs can nonetheless prohibit their use, particularly by smaller conservation organizations. Training skilled volunteers to work with suitable pet dogs may help address this constraint. We sought to further develop the skills of 13 volunteer dog–handler teams that were trained in a previous study to detect myrrh essential oil in controlled laboratory conditions. We assessed search sensitivity, search effort, search precision and false-alert instances through progressive training stages increasing in size and environmental complexity. First, teams searched various-sized areas before and after 12 weeks of search training on a sports-field. Next, teams searched various-sized areas before and after seven weeks of training in bushland. Overall, search sensitivity decreased by approximately 20% in each unfamiliar context, compared to performance in familiar contexts. However, sensitivity typically improved from baseline performance by 10–20% after a period of training. Six teams found at least 78% of targets after training in bushland, yet sensitivity ranged from 29% to 86% between teams. We maintain that the foundational skills developed previously were necessary to prepare volunteer teams for field surveys involving conservation related targets. However, our results highlight the need to also train volunteer CDD teams in search scale and environmental contexts similar to their intended working conditions.

This study focuses on the trust that potential jurors have in unsubstantiated evidence and the implications of such trust for legal decision-making. We examined whether participants' motivation to think deeply ('need for cognition,' NC) and belief in science moderated their trust in potentially fallible detection dog evidence when selecting a verdict in a trial scenario. A detection dog twice indicated the presence of drugs in the scenario, yet no drugs were actually found. Those who chose a guilty verdict without drugs present featured stronger beliefs in detection dog evidence. They were also more confident that a dog alert indicated the presence of drugs, even though the scientific literature actually shows that detection dog evidence is subject to biases and other challenges to reliability. Our findings indicate that an unsubstantiated belief and trust in detection dog evidence may negatively influence juror decision-making, which may, in turn, pose consequences for fairness and justice. Participants believed that detection dogs provide powerful and reliable evidence, and these beliefs were clearly associated with stronger beliefs in science. These findings, therefore, raise serious concerns about jurors' indiscriminate trust in forensic evidence, be it detection dog evidence or other lines of evidence presented in court. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife diseases are a recognized driver of global biodiversity loss, have substantial economic impacts, and are increasingly becoming a threat to human health. Disease surveillance is critical but remains difficult in the wild due to the substantial costs and potential biases associated with most disease detection methods. Noninvasive scat surveys have been proposed as a health monitoring methodology to overcome some of these limitations. Here, we use the known threat of Chlamydia disease to the iconic, yet vulnerable, koala Phascolarctos cinereus to compare three methods for Chlamydia detection in scats: multiplex quantitative PCR, next generation sequencing, and a detection dog specifically trained on scats from Chlamydia‐infected koalas. All three methods demonstrated 100% specificity, while sensitivity was variable. Of particular interest is the variable sensitivity of these diagnostic tests to detect sick individuals (i.e., not only infection as confirmed by Chlamydia‐positive swabs, but with observable clinical signs of the disease); for koalas with urogenital tract disease signs, sensitivity was 78% with quantitative PCR, 50% with next generation genotyping and 100% with the detection dog method. This may be due to molecular methods having to rely on high‐quality DNA whereas the dog most likely detects volatile organic compounds. The most appropriate diagnostic test will vary with disease prevalence and the specific aims of disease surveillance. Acknowledging that detection dogs might not be easily accessible to all, the future development of affordable and portable "artificial noses" to detect diseases from scats in the field might enable cost‐effective, rapid and large‐scale disease surveillance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Domestic dogs, Canis familiaris , are highly responsive to human communicative cues and can utilize gestures, such as pointing, to locate hidden rewards. This ability is thought to be the product of both genetic and behavioural selection, allowing dogs to adapt to life with humans. Dogs' responsiveness to human gestures can also lead to suboptimal choices when dogs readily follow misleading cues despite directly contradicting perceptual information such as odour cues. However, this bias likely reflects pet dogs' enculturation with humans and thus may not be representative of other populations of dogs. We investigated the ability of young dogs in training for explosives detection (N = 77) to locate a hidden reward using olfactory cues when presented in conflict with a deceptive communicative gesture in an object-choice task. We assessed performance at 3, 6 and 11 months of age using both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs. We found that, contrary to previous findings with pet dogs, responsiveness to human pointing decreased with age, whereas the ability to locate the reward by scent increased. Furthermore, a lack of susceptibility to deceptive social cues was predictive of future success as a detection dog. These findings further indicate the influence of ontogenetic effects on canine social cognition and demonstrate potential applications for the identification of suitable detection dogs. • Detection dogs' tendency to follow a misleading gesture decreased with age. • Olfactory-based search success increased with age. • High olfactory cue/low gestural responsiveness predicted detection dog success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The endangered San Joaquin kit fox (SJKF; Vulpes macrotis mutica) is strongly linked ecologically to xeric areas with high abundance of kangaroo rats. Endemic to the San Joaquin Desert of central California, the elusive nature of SJKF, coupled with steady habitat loss and lack of comprehensive surveys, has precluded efforts to quantify the species' population size and distribution, especially in the central and northern parts of its range. Because the Ciervo-Panoche Natural Area contains the largest area of high-quality habitat in this central/northern region, we conducted systematic transect surveys for SJKF scats with professionally trained dog-handler teams throughout the area during 2009–2011. We collected almost 600 scats over 473 km of transects, documenting the freshness and location of each scat. Using molecular methods, we identified 93 SJKF individuals (56 males and 37 females) from 332 samples. Half of the individuals carried a mtDNA haplotype with a 16 bp deletion that had not been previously detected in other areas surveyed. Four individuals were recaptured in 2010 and five in 2011, including one female that was captured every year. We documented a unique mtDNA haplotype and more individuals across a wider area of the Ciervo-Panoche Natural Area than expected. Population analyses revealed two distinct subpopulations, with low connectivity between foxes in the Panoche Valley that are separated by hills with unsuitable habitat from those on the adjacent valley floor next to a major Interstate highway (I-5). While individuals detected within 6 km of each other were closely related, overall relatedness within each subpopulation approached zero. Genetic population models indicated a conservative population estimate of 90 kit foxes in total, with 60–90 individuals in the Panoche Valley and 17–27 individuals in the I-5 area. These results will help to inform management of the SJKF and identify areas that may be important to maintaining connectivity between populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Detection dogs are a critical asset to homeland security, law enforcement, conservation efforts, and more. However, due to the challenges faced in operational working roles and the behavioral requirements to succeed in such roles, many dogs bred and trained for detection tasks are ultimately deemed unsuitable. Therefore, reliable methods for selecting dogs with the highest chances of success are needed. Studies aiming to identify the behavioral traits associated with success and methods for assessment have focused on short-term outcomes related to completion of training or selection for working roles. However, intervening factors may emerge leading to attrition once in service. The goal of the current study was to determine the longitudinal stability of performance on a detection dog behavioral suitability test as well as its predictive validity in determining working success. We followed a cohort of candidate detection dogs (n = 61) to determine changes in number of dogs successfully completing training and still working two years later, as well as determine the long-term predictive validity of the behavioral test. We also repeated the test in a subset of dogs (n = 34) to determine the longitudinal stability of performance on the test from puppy to mature adult. We found that training completion success rates were similar to current working success rates (i.e., minimal attrition). Additionally, performance on aspects of the puppy test such as emotional reactivity conducted at 3 months was predictive of current status (p =.008, OR =.246), and significantly correlated with performance at 3 years (r =.330, p =.028). These findings demonstrate longitudinal stability in behavioral traits considered important for detection dog success, which will be valuable for improving behavioral assessment and selection measures. • Minimal attrition was observed between detection dog training completion and follow-up working status. • Emotional reactivity testing at 3 months old was predictive of detection dog working status at 3 years old. • Certain traits were relatively stable from 3 months to 3 years od age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, demand for US-bred and born detector dogs exceeds available supply, while reliance on foreign-bred sources introduces many unnecessary and unwanted risks. With proper management of a domestic supply line, U.S. breeders can improve both health and behavior by applying scientific principles to breeding and raising of detector dogs. A cooperative national detector dog breeding and development program will mitigate the current shortage of domestic-bred dogs that meet the health and behavior standards required by government, military, and law enforcement agencies. To coordinate such a cooperative, we propose a Detector Dog Center of Excellence (DDCoE) led by representatives of academic canine science programs guided by an advisory board of stakeholders. As a non-governmental organization, the DDCoE will oversee selective breeding of dogs owned by breeders, purchase the resulting puppies, and its members will supervise puppy raising until dogs are of a suitable age to be purchased by government agencies or other working dog organizations. The DDCoE will serve as an approved vendor to facilitate the procurement process. Breeding decisions will be based on proven quantitative genetic methods implemented by a specialized database. A national working dog semen bank will ensure conservation of diverse genetic material and enhance selection response by providing numerous potential sires. As a data collection and genetic evaluation center, the DDCoE will lead research to define quantitative traits involved in odor detection, to understand how these traits develop, and methods to optimize training of dogs endowed with enhanced odor detection ability.

Working dogs play a variety of important roles, ranging from assisting individuals with disabilities, to explosive and medical detection work. Despite widespread demand, only a subset of dogs bred and trained for these roles ultimately succeed, creating a need for objective measures that can predict working dog aptitude. Most previous research has focused on temperamental characteristics of successful dogs. However, working dogs also face diverse cognitive challenges both in training, and throughout their working lives. We conducted a series of studies investigating the relationships between individual differences in dog cognition, and success as an assistance or detection dog. Assistance dogs (N = 164) and detection dogs (N = 222) were tested in the Dog Cognition Test Battery, a 25-item instrument probing diverse aspects of dog cognition. Through exploratory analyses we identified a subset of tasks associated with success in each training program, and developed shorter test batteries including only these measures. We then used predictive modeling in a prospective study with an independent sample of assistance dogs (N = 180), and conducted a replication study with an independent sample of detection dogs (N = 90). In assistance dogs, models using data on individual differences in cognition predicted higher probabilities of success for dogs that ultimately succeeded in the program, than for those who did not. For the subset of dogs with predicted probabilities of success in the 4th quartile (highest predicted probability of success), model predictions were 86% accurate, on average. In both the exploratory and prospective studies, successful dogs were more likely to engage in eye contact with a human experimenter when faced with an unsolvable task, or when a joint social activity was disrupted. In detection dogs, we replicated our exploratory findings that the most successful dogs scored higher on measures of sensitivity to human communicative intentions, and two measures of short term memory. These findings suggest that that (1) individual differences in cognition contribute to variance in working dog success, and (2) that objective measures of dog cognition can be used to improve the processes through which working dogs are evaluated and selected.

Specialized detector dogs are increasingly being utilized for the detection of modern threats. The Vapor Wake® (VW) dog was developed to create a dog phenotype ideally suited for detecting hand-carried and body-worn explosives. VW dogs (VWDs) are trained to sample and alert to target odors in the aerodynamic wakes of moving persons, which entrains vapor and small particles from the person. The behavioral characteristics necessary for dogs to be successfully trained and employed for the application of VW are a distinct subset of the desired general characteristics of dogs used for detection tasks due to the dynamic nature of moving targets. The purpose of this study was to examine the behavioral characteristics of candidate detector dogs to determine the particular qualities that set apart VW-capable dogs from others. We assessed 146 candidate detector dogs from a VW breeding and training program. Dogs received identical puppy development and foundational odor training and underwent performance evaluations at 3, 6, 10, and 12 months old, after which they were sold for service. Dogs were categorized based on their final outcome of the training program, independently determined by private vendors, corresponding to three groups: dogs successfully sold for VW, dogs sold for standard explosives detection, and dogs that failed to be placed in any type of detector dog service (Washouts). Comparisons of behavioral evaluations between the groups were made across domains pertaining to search-related behaviors (Performance), reactions to novel stimuli (Environmental), and overall ease of learning new tasks (Trainability). Comparisons were also made at each evaluation to determine any early emergence of differences. VWDs scored significantly higher on Performance characteristics compared to standard explosives detection dogs (EDDs) and Washouts. However, Environmental characteristics did not differentiate VWDs from EDDs, though scores on these measures were significantly lower in the Washouts. Furthermore, differences between groups emerged as early as 3 and 6 months for select measures. We describe the behavioral characteristics targeted for selection in developing the VW phenotype and discuss the relative merit and degree of expression of those characteristics in the success of dogs bred and trained for the VW application.

Early and reliable diagnostic test is essential for effective therapy of lung cancer. Volatile organic compounds that are characteristic for cancer could serve as valuable biomarkers in cancer diagnosis. Both trace analytical and detection dog approaches give some evidence for the existence of such biomarkers. In this proof of concept, study dogs and trace analysis were implemented in combination to gain more information concerning cancer biomarkers. Two dogs were trained to distinguish between absorbed breath samples of lung cancer patients and healthy persons and succeeded with correct identification of patients with 9/9 and 8/9 and correct negative indications from of 8/10 and 4/10 samples from healthy individuals. A recent observational study found that breath samples from lung cancer patients showed an increase in 1-butanol, 2-butanone, 2-pentanone, and hexanal. Synthetic air samples were therefore fortified with these compounds and adsorbed to a fleece. Tested against breath samples from healthy probands, on presentation to the dogs these synthetic samples provoked an indication in three out of four samples. We were able to demonstrate that a combination of the natural nose of a dog and a trace analytic technique can be a valuable concept in the search for cancer biomarkers.

As Eurasian lynx ( Lynx lynx ) show signs of population recovery in parts of Central Europe, sound monitoring strategies are required to study population expansion, connectivity and genetic diversity. While non-invasive DNA sampling strategies could serve this task, genetic samples of lynx are generally hard to locate. To test the suitability of dog-based sampling we searched scat samples of lynx in the Bavarian Forest National Park, Germany, with two trained detection dog teams. In 44 grid cells of 2 × 2 km, dog teams covered 440 km of predetermined forest road and hiking trail transects during the four week survey. A total of 169 collected samples resulted in 52 genetically confirmed lynx detections, of which 26 were assigned to 11 individuals. Using a single-season site occupancy model we found a detection probability of 0.13/km (SD = 0.02), with 10 km of dog search per grid cell required to get a 70 % probability to detect lynx presence. Our results show that detection dogs are an appropriate tool for systematic genetic lynx monitoring. We argue that detection dog-assisted genetic monitoring may supplement monitoring strategies based on conventional camera trapping, especially when aiming to monitor genetic diversity and population connectivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review summarizes the research investigating behavioral persistence and resistance to extinction in the dog. The first part of this paper reviews Behavioral Momentum Theory and its applications to Applied Behavior Analysis and training of pet dogs with persistent behavioral problems. I also highlight how research on Behavioral Momentum Theory can be applied to the training of detection dogs in an attempt to enhance detection performance in the presence of behavioral disruptors common in operational settings. In the second part of this review, I highlight more basic research on behavioral persistence with dogs, and how breed differences and experiences with humans as alternative sources of reinforcement can influence dogs’ resistance to extinction of a target behavior. Applied Behavior Analysis and Behavior Momentum Theory have important applications for behavioral treatments to reduce the persistence of problem behavior in dogs and for the development of enhanced training methods that enhance the persistence of working dogs. Dogs can also be leveraged as natural models of stereotypic behavior and for exploring individual differences in behavioral persistence by evaluating breed and environmental variables associated with differences in canine persistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife detection dog teams are employed internationally for environmental surveys, and their success often depends on the dog handler. Minimal research is available on the skills that dog handlers believe are important, and no research has been published on the personality profiles of wildlife detection dog handlers. This may reveal the skills that people should acquire to be successful at, or suitable for, this work. An online questionnaire was distributed to Australian and New Zealand wildlife detection dog handlers. This questionnaire provided a list of skills to be rated based on importance, and a personality assessment measured their five main personality domains (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness). A total of 35 questionnaires were collected, which represented over half of the estimated Australian wildlife detection dog handler population. The handlers had on average 7.2 years of dog handling experience, and 54% were female. More than half (57%) of the handlers stated that they were very emotionally attached to their dogs; however, 9% stated they were either not attached or mildly attached to their working dogs. The skill that was rated highest for importance was ‘ability to read dog body language’, and the lowest was ‘skilled in report writing’. On average, the handlers scored high in the Agreeableness domain, low in the Neuroticism domain, and average in the Extraversion, Conscientiousness, and Openness domains. However, all of the personality scores had large ranges. Therefore, a dog handler’s personality may not be as influential on their success as their training or their dog–handler bond. Further research would be beneficial regarding the direct impact that the dog–handler bond and the handler’s knowledge have on working team outcomes.

[Display omitted] • This study uses a novel approach of identifying bark beetle infestation in spruce trees using trained dogs; the traditional approach uses human specialists. • Our study demonstrates that trained dogs can detect trees more successfully and efficient than human experts. One of the most promising techniques for rapid detection of bark beetle-infested trees is the use of specially trained dogs. Due to the novelty of using dogs in detecting bark beetle-infested trees, evaluation of success or comparison with the traditional approaches is lacking. Spruces were pre-treated with a synthetic pheromone at several tree positions in six experimental forest stands of 4–12 ha. The tree positions were selected based on their arrangement in a random scheme or in patches considered suitable for bark beetle colonisation. Three dogs of different ages, sex, and levels of experience in detecting Ips typographus were compared with three experienced human bark beetle specialists. We used GPS positioning of dog tracks (unleashed), handlers, human experts, and detection points during the search under a blind-test procedure for tracking positions. The potential utility of the search methods was estimated with three aspects: 1) search success: detection of infested trees, 2) search effort: length of route, and 3) search efficiency: trees detected / unit time. Dog-handler pairs were overall more successful in detecting trees attacked by bark beetles than human experts. In particular, the success rate of dogs was higher in plots with random arrangement pre-baited trees and search efficiency was four times higher than that of the human experts. The most efficient time for the use of dogs for detection would be during the spring flight period, when detection of first attacks and small hot spots could potentially prevent the development of larger infestations. The main advantage of using the dog search method is to amplify the time-window from about one week to one month from the detection to prompt removal of the infested trees from the forest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]