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Mutations in OCRL encoding the inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase OCRL (Lowe oculocerebrorenal syndrome protein) disrupt phosphoinositide homeostasis along the endolysosomal pathway causing dysfunction of the cells lining the kidney proximal tubule (PT). The dysfunction can be isolated (Dent disease 2) or associated with congenital cataracts, central hypotonia and intellectual disability (Lowe syndrome). The mechanistic understanding of Dent disease 2/Lowe syndrome remains scarce due to limitations of animal models of OCRL deficiency. Here, we investigate the role of OCRL in Dent disease 2/Lowe syndrome by using OcrlY/- mice, where the lethal deletion of the paralogue Inpp5b was rescued by human INPP5B insertion, and primary culture of proximal tubule cells (mPTCs) derived from OcrlY/- kidneys. The OcrlY/- mice show muscular defects with dysfunctional locomotricity and present massive urinary losses of low-molecular-weight proteins and albumin, caused by selective impairment of receptor-mediated endocytosis in PT cells. The latter was due to accumulation of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate PI(4,5)P2 in endolysosomes, driving local hyper-polymerization of F-actin and impairing trafficking of the endocytic LRP2 receptor, as evidenced in OcrlY/- mPTCs. The OCRL deficiency was also associated with a disruption of the lysosomal dynamic and proteolytic activity. Partial convergence of disease-pathways and renal phenotypes observed in OcrlY/- and Clcn5Y/- mice suggest shared mechanisms in Dent diseases 1 and 2. These studies substantiate the first mouse model of Lowe syndrome and give insights into the role of OCRL in cellular trafficking of multiligand receptors. These insights open new avenues for therapeutic interventions in Lowe syndrome and Dent disease., (© The Author(s) 2018. Published by Oxford University Press.)

Dent disease is an X-linked form of chronic kidney disease characterized by hypercalciuria, low molecular weight proteinuria, nephrocalcinosis, and proximal tubular dysfunction. Clinical presentation is highly variable. Male patients may present with early-onset rickets, recurrent nephrolithiasis, or insidiously with asymptomatic proteinuria or chronic kidney disease. Mutations in both the CLCN5 and OCRL1 genes have been associated with the Dent phenotype and are now classified as Dent-1 and Dent-2, respectively. This article describes the clinical presentation, laboratory evaluation, genetics, pathophysiology, management, and future therapies of Dent disease., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Dent's disease is a rare X-linked recessive tubulopathy characterized by low molecular weight (LMW) proteinuria, hypercalciuria, nephrolcalcinosis or nephrolithiasis, proximal tubular dysfunction and renal failure in adulthood. Females are carriers and usually mildly affected. Progression to endstage renal failure are at the 3rd-5th decades of life in 30-80% of affected males. In the absence of therapy targeting for the molecular defect, the current care of patients with Dent's disease is supportive, focusing on the prevention of nephrolithiasis and nephrocalcinosis. We present an 11-year-old child with nephrocalcinosis and nephrolithiasis caused by a new mutation at CLCN5 gene., (Sociedad Argentina de Pediatría.)

Dent disease is a rare X-linked tubulopathy caused by mutations in the endosomal chloride-proton exchanger (ClC-5) resulting in defective receptor-mediated endocytosis and severe proximal tubule dysfunction. Bone marrow transplantation has recently been shown to preserve kidney function in cystinosis, a lysosomal storage disease causing proximal tubule dysfunction. Here we test the effects of bone marrow transplantation in Clcn5 Y/- mice, a faithful model for Dent disease. Transplantation of wild-type bone marrow in Clcn5 Y/- mice significantly improved proximal tubule dysfunction, with decreased low-molecular-weight proteinuria, glycosuria, calciuria, and polyuria four months after transplantation, compared to Clcn5 Y/- mice transplanted with ClC-5 knockout bone marrow. Bone marrow-derived cells engrafted in the interstitium, surrounding proximal tubule cells, which showed a rescue of the apical expression of ClC-5 and megalin receptors. The improvement of proximal tubule dysfunction correlated with Clcn5 gene expression in kidneys of mice transplanted with wild-type bone marrow cells. Coculture of Clcn5 Y/- proximal tubule cells with bone marrow-derived cells confirmed rescue of ClC-5 and megalin, resulting in improved endocytosis. Nanotubular extensions between the engrafted bone marrow-derived cells and proximal tubule cells were observed in vivo and in vitro. No rescue was found when the formation of the tunneling nanotubes was prevented by actin depolymerization or when cells were physically separated by transwell inserts. Thus, bone marrow transplantation may rescue the epithelial phenotype due to an inherited endosomal defect. Direct contacts between bone marrow-derived cells and diseased tubular cells play a key role in the rescue mechanism., (Copyright © 2016 International Society of Nephrology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background and Objectives: Dent disease is a rare X-linked disorder characterized by low molecular weight proteinuria and often considered a renal tubular disease. However, glomerulosclerosis was recently reported in several patients. Thus, Dent disease renal histopathologic features were characterized and assessed, and their association with kidney function was assessed., Design, Setting, Participants, & Measurements: Clinical renal pathology reports and slides (where available) were collected from 30 boys and men in eight countries who had undergone clinical renal biopsy between 1995 and 2014., Results: Median (25th, 75th percentiles) age at biopsy was 7.5 (5, 19) years with an eGFR of 69 (44, 94) ml/min per 1.73 m 2 and a 24-hour urine protein of 2000 (1325, 2936) mg. A repeat biopsy for steroid-resistant proteinuria was performed in 13% (four of 30) of the patients. Prominent histologic findings included focal global glomerulosclerosis in 83% (25 of 30; affecting 16%±19% glomeruli), mild segmental foot process effacement in 57% (13 of 23), focal interstitial fibrosis in 60% (18 of 30), interstitial lymphocytic infiltration in 53% (16 of 30), and tubular damage in 70% (21 of 30). Higher percentages of globally sclerotic glomeruli, foot process effacement, and interstitial inflammation were associated with lower eGFR at biopsy, whereas foot process effacement was associated with steeper annual eGFR decline., Conclusions: These associations suggest a potential role for glomerular pathology, specifically involving the podocyte, in disease progression, which deserves further study. Furthermore, Dent disease should be suspected in boys and men who have unexplained proteinuria with focal global glomerulosclerosis and segmental foot process effacement on renal biopsy., (Copyright © 2016 by the American Society of Nephrology.)

Objective: To describe the clinical and genotypic features of Dent disease in children diagnosed at our center over a period of 10 years., Design: Case series., Setting: Pediatric Nephrology Clinic at a referral center in Northern India., Methods: The medical records of patients with Dent disease diagnosed and followed up at this hospital from June 2005 to April 2015 were reviewed. The diagnosis of Dent disease was based on presence of all three of the following: (i) low molecular weight proteinuria, (ii) hypercalciuria and (iii) one of the following: nephrolithiasis, hematuria, hypophosphatemia or renal insufficiency, with or without mutation in CLCN5 or OCRL1 genes., Results: The phenotype in 18 patients diagnosed with Dent disease during this period was characterized by early age at onset (median 1.8 y), and polyuria, polydipsia, salt craving, hypophosphatemic rickets and night blindness. Rickets was associated with severe deformities, fractures or loss of ambulation in six patients. Nephrocalcinosis was present in three patients, while none had nephrolithiasis. Generalized aminoaciduria was seen in 13 patients, two had glucosuria alone, and one had features of Fanconi syndrome. Over a median follow up of 2.7 years, one patient developed renal failure. Genetic testing (n=15) revealed 5 missense mutations and 3 nonsense mutations in CLCN5 in 13 patients. Five of these variations (p.Met504Lys, p.Trp58Cys, p.Leu729X, p.Glu527Gln and p.Gly57Arg) have not been reported outside the Indian subcontinent., Conclusion: Our findings suggest a severe phenotype in a cohort of Indian patients with Dent disease.

Urinary angiotensinogen excretion parallels albumin excretion, which is not the case for renin, while renin's precursor, prorenin, is undetectable in urine. We hypothesized that renin and prorenin, given their smaller size, are filtered through the glomerulus in larger amounts than albumin and angiotensinogen, and that differences in excretion rate are because of a difference in reabsorption in the proximal tubule. To address this, we determined the glomerular sieving coefficient of renin and prorenin and measured urinary renin/prorenin 1) after inducing prorenin in Cyp1a1-Ren2 rats and 2) in patients with Dent disease or Lowe syndrome, disorders characterized by defective proximal tubular reabsorption. Glomerular sieving coefficients followed molecular size (renin>prorenin>albumin). The induction of prorenin in rats resulted in a >300-fold increase in plasma prorenin and doubling of blood pressure but did not lead to the appearance of prorenin in urine. It did cause parallel rises in urinary renin and albumin, which losartan but not hydralazine prevented. Defective proximal tubular reabsorption increased urinary renin and albumin 20- to 40-fold, and allowed prorenin detection in urine, at ≈50% of its levels in plasma. Taken together, these data indicate that circulating renin and prorenin are filtered into urine in larger amounts than albumin. All 3 proteins are subsequently reabsorbed in the proximal tubule. For prorenin, such reabsorption is ≈100%. Minimal variation in tubular reabsorption (in the order of a few %) is sufficient to explain why urinary renin and albumin excretion do not correlate. Urinary renin does not reflect prorenin that is converted to renin in tubular fluid., (© 2016 American Heart Association, Inc.)

Receptor-mediated endocytosis, involving megalin and cubilin, mediates renal proximal-tubular reabsorption and is decreased in Dent disease because of mutations of the chloride/proton antiporter, chloride channel-5 (CLC-5), resulting in low-molecular-weight proteinuria, hypercalciuria, nephrolithiasis, and renal failure. To facilitate studies of receptor-mediated endocytosis and the role of CLC-5, we established conditionally immortalized proximal-tubular epithelial cell lines (ciPTECs) from three patients with CLC-5 mutations (30:insH, R637X, and del132-241) and a normal male. Confocal microscopy using the tight junction marker zona occludens-1 (ZO-1) and end-binding protein-1 (EB-1), which is specific for the plus end of microtubules demonstrated that the ciPTECs polarized. Receptor-mediated endocytic uptake of fluorescent albumin and transferrin in 30:insH and R637X ciPTECs was significantly decreased, compared with normal ciPTECs, and could be further reduced by competition with 10-fold excess of unlabeled albumin and transferrin, whereas in the del132-241 ciPTEC, receptor-mediated endocytic uptake was abolished. Investigation of endosomal acidification by live-cell imaging of pHluorin-VAMP2 (vesicle-associated membrane protein-2), a pH-sensitive-GFP construct, revealed that the endosomal pH in normal and 30:insH ciPTECs was similar, whereas in del132-241 and R637X ciPTECs, it was significantly more alkaline, indicating defective acidification in these ciPTECs. The addition of bafilomycin-A1, a V-ATPase inhibitor, raised the pH significantly in all ciPTECs, demonstrating that the differences in acidification were not due to alterations in the V-ATPase, but instead to abnormalities of CLC-5. Thus, our studies, which have established human Dent disease ciPTECs that will facilitate studies of mechanisms in renal reabsorption, demonstrate that Dent disease-causing CLC-5 mutations have differing effects on endosomal acidification and receptor-mediated endocytosis that may not be coupled.

Background: Three patients with Dent's disease presented with complaints of impaired night vision or xerophthalmia and were found to have severely decreased serum retinol concentrations. Retinol, bound to its carrier retinol-binding protein (RBP), is filtered at the glomerulus and reabsorbed at the proximal tubule. We hypothesized that urinary loss of retinol-RBP complex is responsible for decreased serum retinol., Objective and Methods: The study aim was to investigate vitamin A status and RBP in serum and urine of patients with genetically confirmed Dent's disease., Results: Eight patients were studied, three boys had clinical vitamin A deficiency, three had asymptomatic deficiency, and two young men with Dent's disease and impaired renal function had normal retinol values. Serum RBP concentrations were low in patients with vitamin A deficiency and were correlated with vitamin A levels. Urinary RBP concentrations were increased in all patients (2,000-fold), regardless of vitamin A status. This was in contrast to patients with glomerular proteinuria who had only mildly increased urinary RBP with normal serum RBP and vitamin A, and patients with cystinosis with impaired renal function who had massive urinary RBP losses but without a decrease in serum RBP or vitamin A levels. Treatment with vitamin A supplements in patients with retinol deficiency resulted in rapid resolution of ocular symptoms and an increase in serum retinol concentrations., Conclusions: Vitamin A deficiency is common in patients with Dent's disease and preserved renal function. We therefore recommend screening these patients for retinol deficiency and treating them before visual symptoms develop.

Dent's disease is an X-linked recessive disorder affecting the proximal tubules. Mutations in the 2Cl(-)/H(+) exchanger ClC-5 gene CLCN5 are frequently associated with Dent's disease. Functional characterization of mutations of CLCN5 have helped to elucidate the physiopathology of Dent's disease and provided evidence that several different mechanisms underlie the ClC-5 dysfunction in Dent's disease. Modeling studies indicate that many CLCN5 mutations are located at the interface between the monomers of ClC-5, demonstrating that this protein region plays an important role in Dent's disease. On the basis of functional data, CLCN5 mutations can be divided into three different classes. Class 1 mutations impair processing and folding, and as a result, the ClC-5 mutants are retained within the endoplasmic reticulum and targeted for degradation by quality control mechanisms. Class 2 mutations induce a delay in protein processing and reduce the stability of ClC-5. As a consequence, the cell surface expression and currents of the ClC-5 mutants are lower. Class 3 mutations do not alter the trafficking of ClC-5 to the cell surface and early endosomes but induce altered electrical activity. Here, we discuss the functional consequences of the three classes of CLCN5 mutations on ClC-5 structure and function.

The clinical use of aminoglycoside (AG) antibiotics is limited by their renal toxicity, which is caused by drug accumulation in proximal tubule (PT) cells. Clinical studies reported that renal clearance of AG is enhanced in cystic fibrosis (CF) patients, which might reflect the role of CFTR in PT cell endocytosis. In order to assess the role of chloride transporters on the renal handling of AG, we investigated gentamicin uptake and renal accumulation in mice lacking functional CFTR (Cftr ( ∆F/∆F)) or knock-out for the Cl(-)/H(+) exchanger ClC-5 (Clcn5 ( Y/- )). The latter represent a paradigm of PT dysfunction and defective receptor-mediated endocytosis. As compared with controls, Cftr ( ∆F/∆F) and Clcn5 ( Y/- ) mice showed a 15% to 85% decrease in gentamicin accumulation in the kidney, respectively, in absence of renal failure. Studies on primary cultures of Cftr ( ∆F/∆F) and Clcn5 ( Y/- ) mouse PT cells confirmed the reduction in gentamicin uptake, although colocalization with endosomes and lysosomes was maintained. Quantification of endocytosis in PT cells revealed that gentamicin, similar to albumin, preferentially binds to megalin. The functional loss of ClC-5 or CFTR was reflected by a decrease of the endocytic uptake of gentamicin, with a more pronounced effect in cells lacking ClC-5. These results support the concept that CFTR, as well as ClC-5, plays a relevant role in PT cell endocytosis. They also demonstrate that the functional loss of these two chloride transporters is associated with impaired uptake of AG in PT cells, reflected by a decreased renal accumulation of the drug.

Dent's disease is an X-linked recessive renal tubulopathy characterized by low-molecular-weight proteinuria (LMWP), hypercalciuria, nephrocalcinosis, nephrolithiasis, and progressive renal failure. LMWP is the most constant feature, while the other clinical manifestations show wide variability. Patients also present variable manifestations of proximal tubule dysfunctions, such as aminoaciduria, glucosuria, hyperphosphaturia, kaliuresis, and uricosuria, consistent with renal Fanconi syndrome. Dent's disease affects mainly male children, and female carriers are generally asymptomatic. In two-thirds of patients, the disease is caused by mutations in the CLCN5 gene, which encodes the electrogenic chloride/proton exchanger ClC-5. A few patients have mutations in OCRL1, the gene associated with the oculocerebrorenal syndrome of Lowe, which encodes a phosphatidylinositol-4,5-biphosphate-5-phosphatase (OCRL1). Both ClC-5 and OCRL1 are involved in the endocytic pathway for reabsorption of LMW proteins in the proximal tubule. This review will provide an overview of the important phenotypic characteristics of Dent's disease and summarize the molecular data that have significantly increased our comprehension of the mechanisms causing this disease.

OCRL mutations, which are a hallmark of Lowe syndrome, have recently been found in patients with isolated renal phenotype (Dent-2 disease). In this report, we describe clinical and laboratory features in five Macedonian children with mutations in the OCRL gene. Children with a clinical diagnosis of Lowe syndrome or Dent disease underwent complete neurological and ophthalmological examination, imaging of the kidney and urinary tract, assessment of renal tubular function, and mutation analysis of the OCRL gene. Two children (18 months and 11 years, respectively) were diagnosed with Lowe syndrome on the basis of congenital cataracts, severe psychomotor retardation, and renal dysfunction. Both children had low molecular weight proteinuria (LMWP) and hypercalciuria, but not Fanconi syndrome. The older one had bilateral nephrolithiasis due to associated hypocitraturia and mild hyperoxaluria. Three children with asymptomatic proteinuria were diagnosed with Dent-2 disease; none had cataracts or neurological deficit. One child showed mild mental retardation. All had LMWP, hypercalciuria, and elevated enzymes (creatine phosphokinase, lactic dehydrogenase). All three children had an abnormal Tc-99m DMSA scan revealing poor visualization of the kidneys with a high radionuclide content in the bladder; none had nephrolithiasis or nephrocalcinosis. In conclusion, children with OCRL mutations may present with very mild phenotype (asymptomatic proteinuria with/without mild mental retardation) or severe classic oculocerebrorenal syndrome of Lowe. Elevated enzymes and abnormal results on the Tc-99m DMSA scan may be useful indicators for Dent-2 disease.

Dent's disease is a renal tubular disorder characterized by manifestations of proximal tubule dysfunction, including low-molecular-weight proteinuria, hypercalciuria, nephrolithiasis, nephrocalcinosis, and progressive renal failure. These features are generally found in males only, and may be present in early childhood, whereas female carriers may show a milder phenotype. Prevalence is unknown; the disorder has been reported in around 250 families to date. Complications such as rickets or osteomalacia may occur. The disease is caused by mutations in either the CLCN5 (Dent disease 1) or OCRL1 (Dent disease 2) genes that are located on chromosome Xp11.22 and Xq25, respectively. CLCN5 encodes the electrogenic Cl⁻/H(+) exchanger ClC-5, which belongs to the CLC family of Cl⁻ channels/transporters. OCRL1 encodes a phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate (PIP₂) 5-phosphatase and mutations are also associated with Lowe Syndrome. The phenotype of Dent's disease is explained by the predominant expression of ClC-5 in the proximal tubule segments of the kidney. No genotype-phenotype correlation has been described thus far, and there is considerable intra-familial variability in disease severity. A few patients with Dent's disease do not harbour mutations in CLCN5 and OCRL1, pointing to the involvement of other genes. Diagnosis is based on the presence of all three of the following criteria: low-molecular-weight proteinuria, hypercalciuria and at least one of the following: nephrocalcinosis, kidney stones, hematuria, hypophosphatemia or renal insufficiency. Molecular genetic testing confirms the diagnosis. The differential diagnosis includes other causes of generalized dysfunction of the proximal tubules (renal Fanconi syndrome), hereditary, acquired, or caused by exogenous substances. Antenatal diagnosis and pre-implantation genetic testing is not advised. The care of patients with Dent's disease is supportive, focusing on the treatment of hypercalciuria and the prevention of nephrolithiasis. The vital prognosis is good in the majority of patients. Progression to end-stage renal failure occurs between the 3rd and 5th decades of life in 30-80% of affected males.