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Drilling of a 21.8-m-deep borehole on top of the 10.5-m-high Nori pingo that stands at 32 m asl in Grøndalen Valley (Spitsbergen) revealed a 16.1-m-thick massive ice enclosed by frozen sediments. The hydrochemical compositions of both the massive ice and the sediment extract show a prevalence of Na+ and Cl� ions throughout the core. The upper part of the massive ice (stage A) has low mineralization and shows an isotopically closed-system trend in δ18O and δD isotopes decreasing down-core. Stage B exhibits high mineralization and an isotopically semi-open system. The crystallographic structure of Nori pingo’s massive ice provides evidence of several large groundwater intrusions that support the defined formation stages. Analysis of local aquifers leads to suggest that the pingo was hydraulically sourced through a local fault zone by low mineralized sodium–bicarbonate groundwater of a Paleogene strata aquifer. This groundwater was enriched by sodium and chloride ions while filtering through marine valley sediments with residual salinity. The comparison between the sodium–chloride-dominated massive ice of the Nori pingo and the sodium–bicarbonate-dominated ice of the adjacent Fili pingo that stands higher up the valley may serve as an indicator for groundwater source patterns of other Nordenskiöld Land pingos.

The bacterial composition of permafrost samples taken during drilling of frozen marine sediments in the area of the Barentsburg coal mine on the east coast of Grønfjord Bay of Western Spitsbergen has been studied. The study was based on the analysis of the V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene, carried out using next generation sequencing, as well as using classical microbiological methods (direct luminescence microscopy and aerobic cultivation).The total cell number in permafrost samples ranges from 6.73±0.73·106 to 3.37±0.19·107 cells per g. The number of cultivable aerobic bacteria in frozen samples on 1/5 TSA and R2A media ranges from 0 to 6.20±0.45·104 CFU/g. Isolates of aerobic bacteria were identifi ed by 16S rRNA gene analysis as representatives of the genera Arthrobacter, Pseudarthrobacter, Psychrobacter, and Rhodoferax. The dominant phyla of the Bacteria domain were Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, Chlorofl exi, Nitrospirae and Firmicutes As a result of phylogenetic analysis of the dominant operational taxonomic units, representatives of methaneoxidizing, sulfate-reducing bacteria, as well as heterotrophic bacteria involved in the transformation of organic matter were found.

The archaeal composition of permafrost samples taken during drilling of frozen marine sediments in the area of the Barentsburg coal mine on the east coast of Grønfjord Bay of Western Spitsbergen has been studied. The study was based on the analysis of the V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene, carried out using next generation sequencing. This is the second part of the work dedicated to the prokaryotic composition of the Western Spitsbergen, the fi rst part was devoted to the domain of Bacteria. The general phyla of the the Archaea domain were Euryarchaeota, Bathyarchaeota, Thaumarchaeota and Asgardarchaeota. As a result of phylogenetic analysis of the dominant operational taxonomic units, representatives of methanogenic methane- and ammonium-oxidizing archaea, as well as heterotrophic archaea were found. Methanobacteria class of methanogenic archaea was found in the controversial genesis, while methane-oxidizing archaea of the Methanomicrobia class of Methanosarcinales order were found in the marine permafrost of Cape Finneset: ANME-2a, -2b group was found in layers 8.6 and 11.7 m, and a group ANME-2d (Candidatus Methanoperedens) – in a layer of 6.5 m. Ammonium-oxidizing archaea of the phylum Thaumarchaeota was present in all types of permafrost, while Nitrososphaerales was detected in controversial genesis permafrost, and the order-Nitrosopumilales in the marine permafrost or controversial genesis ones. Representatives of phylum Bathyarchaeota were found in the stratigraphicly most ancient samples under this study. Superphylum Asgardarchaeota was met exclusively in the layers of permafrost with marine genesis and was represented by phyla Lokiarchaeota, Thorarchaeota and another group belonging to this superphylum that was not identified by us. The presence in the marine permafrost terrace of Cape Finneset at 11.7 m depth of methane, ethylene and ethane, as well as the composition of the archaeal community gives this layer to assume in it the presence of microbiological p

The bacterial composition of permafrost samples taken during drilling of frozen marine sediments in the area of the Barentsburg coal mine on the east coast of Grønfjord Bay of Western Spitsbergen has been studied. The study was based on the analysis of the V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene, carried out using next generation sequencing, as well as using classical microbiological methods (direct luminescence microscopy and aerobic cultivation).The total cell number in permafrost samples ranges from 6.73±0.73·106 to 3.37±0.19·107 cells per g. The number of cultivable aerobic bacteria in frozen samples on 1/5 TSA and R2A media ranges from 0 to 6.20±0.45·104 CFU/g. Isolates of aerobic bacteria were identifi ed by 16S rRNA gene analysis as representatives of the genera Arthrobacter, Pseudarthrobacter, Psychrobacter, and Rhodoferax. The dominant phyla of the Bacteria domain were Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, Chlorofl exi, Nitrospirae and Firmicutes As a result of phylogenetic analysis of the dominant operational taxonomic units, representatives of methaneoxidizing, sulfate-reducing bacteria, as well as heterotrophic bacteria involved in the transformation of organic matter were found.

The archaeal composition of permafrost samples taken during drilling of frozen marine sediments in the area of the Barentsburg coal mine on the east coast of Grønfjord Bay of Western Spitsbergen has been studied. The study was based on the analysis of the V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene, carried out using next generation sequencing. This is the second part of the work dedicated to the prokaryotic composition of the Western Spitsbergen, the fi rst part was devoted to the domain of Bacteria. The general phyla of the the Archaea domain were Euryarchaeota, Bathyarchaeota, Thaumarchaeota and Asgardarchaeota. As a result of phylogenetic analysis of the dominant operational taxonomic units, representatives of methanogenic methane- and ammonium-oxidizing archaea, as well as heterotrophic archaea were found. Methanobacteria class of methanogenic archaea was found in the controversial genesis, while methane-oxidizing archaea of the Methanomicrobia class of Methanosarcinales order were found in the marine permafrost of Cape Finneset: ANME-2a, -2b group was found in layers 8.6 and 11.7 m, and a group ANME-2d (Candidatus Methanoperedens) – in a layer of 6.5 m. Ammonium-oxidizing archaea of the phylum Thaumarchaeota was present in all types of permafrost, while Nitrososphaerales was detected in controversial genesis permafrost, and the order-Nitrosopumilales in the marine permafrost or controversial genesis ones. Representatives of phylum Bathyarchaeota were found in the stratigraphicly most ancient samples under this study. Superphylum Asgardarchaeota was met exclusively in the layers of permafrost with marine genesis and was represented by phyla Lokiarchaeota, Thorarchaeota and another group belonging to this superphylum that was not identified by us. The presence in the marine permafrost terrace of Cape Finneset at 11.7 m depth of methane, ethylene and ethane, as well as the composition of the archaeal community gives this layer to assume in it the presence of microbiological p

This work summarizes the archived data of geocryological and hydrogeological conditions in the west of Nordenskiold Land on the Spitsbergen Archipelago. The historical data obtained in the Soviet period during coal exploration are reviewed together with the results of our own studies performed as part of the Russian Scientific Arctic Expedition on Spitsbergen (RAE-S) in 2016–2020. With respect to geocryology, the region is assigned to the zone of continuous permafrost. The thickness of rocks and sediments with temperatures below zero is about 100 m near the coast and increases to 540 m on watersheds. The mean annual ground temperature near the zero-amplitude depth varies from –3.6 to –2.2°C. Below this layer, the temperature curve in the top part of the section tends to deviate toward positive temperatures, reflecting the modern cycle of climate warming. From the hydrogeological point of view, the area belongs to the marginal zone of the West Spitsbergen cryoadartesian basin. Seawater intrusions near the coast form saline subpermafrost aquifers, including those with temperatures below zero, reflecting the seawater (sodium chloride) composition and hydraulic heads close to sea level. Fresh and slightly saline (sodium bicarbonate on the east coast of Grønfjorden and magnesium–calcium sulfate in gypsum-bearing deposits on the west coast) subpermafrost water with hydraulic heads reaching 100 m above sea level is fed by water-saturated ice in the deep layers of large glaciers.

This report follows up on the report published in the SESS Report 2018 (Christiansen et al. 2019). Since 2018, the Norwegian Environment Agency has released the Climate in Svalbard 2100 report summarizing observed trends in permafrost conditions over the period of field measurements and a forecast for the future, based on recent climate and permafrost modelling (Hanssen-Bauer et al. 2019). It is well established that the terrestrial cryosphere in Svalbard has changed since modern permafrost monitoring efforts began in the late 1990s. In central Svalbard in the Adventdalen area, ground temperatures have risen by as much as 0.15°C per year (10 m depth) and the thickness of the seasonally-unfrozen active layer increased by 0.6 cm per year since 2000 in sediments and 1.6 cm/year in bedrock (Hanssen-Bauer et al. 2019), while in Ny-Ålesund ground temperatures increased by 0.18°C/year and the thickness of active layer increased by 5 cm/year (Boike et al. 2018). Modern monitoring techniques mean that it is relatively easy to quantify permafrost change in terms of temperature. The visible effects of warming permafrost are, however, more ambiguous. A prolonged thaw season is anticipated to result in a thicker active layer, and increased rainfall intensity can result in more frequent landslides. The strength of frozen soil decreases when warming and permafrost change may expectedly result in infrastructure problems in cases where climate change was not considered during the initial design. The aims of this part of the State of Environmental Science in Svalbard reporting are to: (1) provide an overview of permafrost data collected during the 2017-2018 hydrological year (1 September 2017 – 31 August 2018), (2) contrast these results with the 2016-2017 hydrological year as presented in Christiansen et al. (2019), (3) summarise developments in permafrost monitoring in Svalbard, and (4) provide recommendations for future permafrost investigations. Understanding the spatial distribu

The continental shelves of the Arctic Ocean and surrounding seas contain large stocks of organic matter (OM) and methane (CH4), representing a potential ecosystem feedback to climate change not included in international climate agreements. We performed a structured expert assessment with 25 permafrost researchers to combine quantitative estimates of the stocks and sensitivity of organic carbon in the subsea permafrost domain (i.e. unglaciated portions of the continental shelves exposed during the last glacial period). Experts estimated that the subsea permafrost domain contains similar to 560 gigatons carbon (GtC; 170-740, 90% confidence interval) in OM and 45 GtC (10-110) in CH4. Current fluxes of CH4 and carbon dioxide (CO2) to the water column were estimated at 18 (2-34) and 38 (13-110) megatons C yr(-1), respectively. Under Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) RCP8.5, the subsea permafrost domain could release 43 Gt CO2-equivalent (CO(2)e) by 2100 (14-110) and 190 Gt CO(2)e by 2300 (45-590), with similar to 30% fewer emissions under RCP2.6. The range of uncertainty demonstrates a serious knowledge gap but provides initial estimates of the magnitude and timing of the subsea permafrost climate feedback.

The Russian Arctic scientific expedition on Spitsbergen performs permafrost observations in Barentsburg since 2016, including as a part of the Russian-German initiative to establish a Eurasian Arctic high-latitude permafrost monitoring transect covering the Spitsbergen, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, Novosibirskiye Islands and Wrangel Island. The permafrost monitoring network in Barentsburg includes: (1) four temperature monitoring boreholes of the Global Terrestrial Network for Permafrost with depth up to 26 m, (2) one site of the Circumpolar Active Layer Monitoring Network (CALM) for observing the dynamics of the seasonally thawed active layer equipped with an automatic meteostation, (3) a study area for repeated morphometric and temperature observations of a group of seven pingos, (4) the periodic observation and sampling of a number of groundwater springs, ice blisters and icings, and (5) the periodic ground penetrating radar and electrical survey of glaciogenic and hydrogenic taliks. The ground temperatures at a depth of zero amplitude vary from -2.2 °C to -3.56 °C. Quaternary drill core deposits, formed according to radiocarbon analysis during the period of MIS 3 - MIS 1, have a thickness up to 40 m. In the upper parts deposits are mainly represented by gravel with structureless cryostructure. The lower parts of the core sections are built by clay with streaky cryostructures. Clays are characterized by high salt content and thus freezing temperatures between -1 and -2 °C, which makes them highly sensitive to even slight ground temperature increase. The measurements of the active layer dynamics on a CALM site showed values from 1.15 to 1.60 m with an average of 1.38 m in 2017. The upper boundary of pingos ice body was observed at the depth 1.5 – 13.0 m, thus some of them are degrading or soon will start to degrade due to propagation of 0 °C isotherm to the ice.

The Russian Arctic scientific expedition on Spitsbergen performs permafrost observations in Barentsburg since 2016, including as a part of the Russian-German initiative to establish a Eurasian Arctic high-latitude permafrost monitoring transect covering the Spitsbergen, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, Novosibirskiye Islands and Wrangel Island. The permafrost monitoring network in Barentsburg includes: (1) four temperature monitoring boreholes of the Global Terrestrial Network for Permafrost with depth up to 26 m, (2) one site of the Circumpolar Active Layer Monitoring Network (CALM) for observing the dynamics of the seasonally thawed active layer equipped with an automatic meteostation, (3) a study area for repeated morphometric and temperature observations of a group of seven pingos, (4) the periodic observation and sampling of a number of groundwater springs, ice blisters and icings, and (5) the periodic ground penetrating radar and electrical survey of glaciogenic and hydrogenic taliks. The ground temperatures at a depth of zero amplitude vary from -2.2 °C to -3.56 °C. Quaternary drill core deposits, formed according to radiocarbon analysis during the period of MIS 3 - MIS 1, have a thickness up to 40 m. In the upper parts deposits are mainly represented by gravel with structureless cryostructure. The lower parts of the core sections are built by clay with streaky cryostructures. Clays are characterized by high salt content and thus freezing temperatures between -1 and -2 °C, which makes them highly sensitive to even slight ground temperature increase. The measurements of the active layer dynamics on a CALM site showed values from 1.15 to 1.60 m with an average of 1.38 m in 2017. The upper boundary of pingos ice body was observed at the depth 1.5 – 13.0 m, thus some of them are degrading or soon will start to degrade due to propagation of 0 °C isotherm to the ice.

The climate warming–related degradation of permafrost can lead to the entry of climatically and biologically active substances, including mercury, into the biosphere; this work focuses on the analysis of the total content of mercury and organic carbon in 15 cores drilled in frozen Quaternary deposits of the Arctic Archipelago of Spitsbergen. The mercury content was additionally analyzed in bedrock samples, because the studied Quaternary deposits are formed by the weathering of the bedrock of the area. The results show that mercury concentrations in 157 studied samples of frozen Quaternary deposits range from 21 to 94 ng/g, with an average value of 40 ng/g. The expected correlation of mercury content with organic carbon content is not revealed. There are no trends in the accumulation of mercury depending on the lithological facies, geomorphological position, the time of sedimentation, or the freezing conditions. The average content of mercury in bedrock is relatively low, with a mean value of 8 ng/g. This means that the main source of mercury in frozen Quaternary deposits is not bedrock, but the formation of organic matter complexes or sorption on clay particles. In terms of the ongoing discussion about mercury input from permafrost to ecosystems, the results obtained from boreholes can be considered preindustrial background values.