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Reading fluency (RF) involves the automaticity of many distinct reading skills (e.g., pacing, word recognition, phonological awareness) and allows cognitive resources to be allocated to higher-order reading skills (e.g., comprehension, synthesis). Early identification of students at-risk for RF deficits is critical, but many screeners require a level of basic proficiency with foundational reading skills. This review examines the longitudinal relationships between neurocognitive precursors of RF with special consideration of cognitive processing demands of measurement tasks. Eighteen articles yielded 80 unique correlations between 6 neurocognitive constructs (phonological processing, rapid automatic naming, working memory, nonverbal reasoning, orthographic processing, and visual-spatial processing) measured through 35 unique subtests/tasks and 2 primary RF outcomes (word RF and text RF) measured through 11 unique subtests/tasks. Phonological processing was the most frequently assessed neurocognitive predictor (41.3% of total correlations), followed by rapid automatic naming (32.5%). Nearly all correlation coefficients were significant (83.75%); 28.75% of correlations suggested a strong predictive relationship between a neurocognitive predictor and an RF outcome. The strength of correlation largely varied as a function of the task demands as evidenced through the supplemental process analyses, suggesting future consideration should be given to the specificity of task selection to improve ecologically valid conclusions. Evidence from this review supports the need to consider specific neurocognitive functions, specifically rapid automatic naming and orthographic processing, as critical components of dynamic and comprehensive assessments of reading to help identify students at-risk for future RF challenges.

The current study provides a methodological review of studies supporting a general factor of intelligence as the primary model for contemporary measures of cognitive abilities. A further evaluation is provided by an empirical evaluation that compares statistical estimates using different approaches in a large sample of children (ages 9-13 years, N = 780) administered a comprehensive battery of cognitive measures. Results from this study demonstrate the ramifications of using the bifactor and Schmid-Leiman (BF/SL) technique and suggest that using BF/SL methods limit interpretation of cognitive abilities to only a general factor. The inadvertent use of BF/SL methods is demonstrated to impact both model dimensionality and variance estimates for specific measures. As demonstrated in this study, conclusions from both exploratory and confirmatory studies using BF/SL methods are significantly questioned, especially for studies with a questionable theoretical basis. Guidelines for the interpretation of cognitive test scores in applied practice are discussed.

Performance on figure copying tasks is empirically linked to the school readiness, learning, cognition, and neuropsychological functioning. These nonverbal tasks are frequently used to evaluate children from diverse backgrounds to minimize bias due to factors such as language, ethnicity, culture, or socioeconomic status on test performance. The current study examined the possible Differential Item Functioning across African American and Caucasian groups, ages 4 to 7 years, in "Bender Motor Gestalt Test, Second Edition" (BG-II) visual-motor scores. Results indicated that in general the BG-II can be considered invariant across these ethnic groups in this age range.

Working memory (WM) measures are routinely integrated into comprehensive diagnostic evaluations. However, there is little research regarding the underlying components of WM and their developmental trajectories. The current study examined the developmental trajectories of distinct WM components in a sample of 303 individuals ages 6 through 25 years. Consistent with previous research, results indicated an overall linear trajectory from childhood to adolescence; however, trajectories differed across specific content domains. Verbal working memory scores continued to increase linearly through at least early adulthood, and static visual-spatial working memory tapered off in late adolescence or early adulthood. In addition, dynamic visual-spatial working memory showed a slight decline in mid-adolescence before increasing again in early adulthood. The current findings regarding different trajectories for static vs. dynamic visual-spatial working memory provide suggestive evidence for expanding WM conceptualizations and assessments beyond verbal and visual tests. Applications of expanded WM assessments, including separate static and dynamic visual-spatial working memory measures in the comprehensive assessment, are discussed.

Although the empirical relationship between general intelligence and academic achievement is well established, that between specific cognitive abilities and achievement is less so. This study investigated the relationships between specific Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) cognitive abilities and reading comprehension across a large sample of children (N = 835) at different periods of reading development (grades 1-5). Results suggest select cognitive variables predict reading comprehension above and beyond basic reading skills. However, the relative importance of specific cognitive abilities in predicting reading comprehension differs across grade levels. Further analyses using mediation models found specific cognitive abilities mediated the effects of basic reading skills on reading comprehension. Implications for the important and dynamic role of cognitive abilities in predicting reading comprehension across development are discussed.

A significant number of studies have examined the cognitive components of basic academic skills, which has led to major changes in both teaching and early identification assessment practices. However, the majority of previous research has focused solely on reading. This study examines the cognitive components of academic writing skills across early grade levels (1-4) while controlling for basic word identification skills. Results from this study suggest writing skill requires several cognitive skills of differing emphasis depending on the level of writing skill. Perceptual and rapid perceptual processing skills are important during the early acquisition of writing skills followed by a transition to language and language retrieval skills and later still to working memory skills. Applications for education and cognitive assessment are discussed.

Development of early math skill depends on a prerequisite level of cognitive development. Identification of specific cognitive skills that are important for math development may not only inform instructional approaches but also inform assessment approaches to identifying children with specific learning problems in math. This study investigated the specific cognitive correlates of math problem solving across early grade levels (1-4) while controlling for basic calculation skills. As expected, basic calculation skill was a significant predictor of math problem solving across the entire sample. However, the addition of cognitive measures almost doubled the variance explained (R[superscript 2] = 0.61). Additionally, only select cognitive variables contributed to the prediction of math problem solving, and these variables change in importance as children develop higher-level math skills. Results are discussed within a developmental model, which emphasizes the increasing importance of abstract code representations required in higher levels of math performance.

Cognitive deficits in working memory (WM) are characteristic features of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and autism. However, few studies have investigated cognitive deficits using a wide range of cognitive measures. We compared children with ADHD ("n" = 49) and autism ("n" = 33) with a demographically matched control group ("n" = 79) on a multidimensional battery of cognitive ability. Results confirmed previous research that both groups were characterized by deficits in WM. However, results also suggest verbal WM measures were better predictors than nonverbal WM measures. In addition, measures of visual-motor integration are equally discriminating of children with ADHD and autism from a matched control group. In all, 81% discrimination accuracy was obtained using only WM and visual-motor integration measures. Demonstrated shared deficits in WM and visual-motor integration are explained based on proposed neurological mechanisms common across the two disorders. Clinical implications are discussed.

Deficits in rapid automatized naming (RAN) have been found to be a sensitive cognitive marker for children with dyslexia. However, there is a lack of consensus regarding the construct validity and theoretical neuro-cognitive processes involved in RAN. Additionally, most studies investigating RAN include a narrow range of cognitive measures. The current study examined the cognitive correlates of RAN with a comprehensive battery of cognitive measures representing the entire Cattell-Horn-Carroll model of cognitive ability. Cognitive correlates of RAN were investigated for 1307 children across a range of developmental ages (5-12 years). Cognitive predictors of RAN differed by developmental age, which may partially explain inconsistencies in previous research studies. Despite developmental variation, lexical access tasks were related to RAN performance across all developmental ages. Results from this study suggest RAN performance likely consists of multiple cognitive processes, both those associated with lexical access and others that depend on developmental age. (Contains 14 tables.)

Research has demonstrated that many children have learning problems related to deficits in specific cognitive processes that are not adequately represented by a single IQ score. The administration of cognitive measures that include narrow abilities is useful in understanding specific learning problems and developing effective interventions. However, school psychology training programs have not readily adopted contemporary assessment practices. This article reviews the historical and legislative factors influencing school psychologists' use of intellectual measures for identifying children with learning and other high-incidence disabilities. Distinctions between contemporary cognitive assessment and traditional IQ testing are reviewed. Specific challenges to incorporating evidence-based assessment practice within school psychology training programs are identified. Guidelines for using alternative research-based procedures that include the use of cognitive measures to assess a child's strengths and weaknesses are provided. Potential directions for the application of cognitive theory in educational settings, professional training in appropriate interpretive strategies, and ethical guidance for the appropriate use of cognitive measures are also discussed. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

Changes to federal guidelines for the identification of children with disabilities have supported the use of multi-tiered models of service delivery. This study investigated the impact of measurement methodology as used across numerous tiers in determining special education eligibility. Four studies were completed using a sample of inner-city children (N = 150) who were administered a reading screener twice and a reading measure adapted from the state high-stakes reading test. A sub-sample of children identified as At-Risk were administered a comprehensive reading assessment and compared with a randomly selected control group, who were also administered a comprehensive reading assessment (n = 14). A model was developed to estimate the likelihood of special education eligibility based on both theoretical and empirical measurement parameters. Depending on the measurement assumptions of the multi-tiered model, special education eligibility outcomes varied from a low of 0.2% to as high as 11%, depending on the type of measure used, decision-making criteria used at each tier, and the number of tiers in the model. This study highlights the importance of measurement specification, explicit decision-making criteria, and empirical investigation to fully understand outcomes associated with the implementation of multi-tiered models. Implications for special education eligibility policy and practical implications for implementing comprehensive measurement practice in multi-tiered systems at the school level are discussed. (Contains 8 tables and 1 figure.)

Measures of visual-motor integration skills continue to be widely used in psychological assessments with children. However, the construct validity of many visual-motor integration measures remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the relative contributions of maturation and cognitive skills to the development of visual-motor integration skills in young children (N = 856). We used a block regression analysis to determine the contribution of maturation, as indicated by age, followed by broad cognitive factors (Study 1) and subsequently by individual subtests in verbal and nonverbal domains subsumed under each factor (Study 2) in explaining score variance of the Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test (2nd ed.; BG-II; Brannigan & Decker, 2003) Copy and Recall scores in children between the ages of 4 and 7 years. Results confirm that maturation accounted for a large proportion of variance in both BG-II Copy and Recall performance, above which Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (5th ed.; SB-5; Roid, 2003) Quantitative Reasoning and Fluid Reasoning factors significantly contributed to visual-motor integration performance for the Copy phase, and SB-5 Quantitative Reasoning and Visual-Spatial factors accounted for a significant amount of variance for the Recall phase. Additionally, nonverbal domains were more related to visual-motor performance than verbal domains. Results from this study are interpreted to suggest nonverbal reasoning and visual-spatial attention are important contributing factors to visual-motor integration, as measured by the BG-II. Developmental implications of visual-motor integration skills, nonverbal problem solving, and mathematical competence are discussed. (Contains 3 tables.)

This article reviews the Test of Memory and Learning: Second Edition (TOMAL-2), published by PRO-ED, which constitutes a recent revision of the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL; Reynolds & Bigler, 1994). Advertised as the "single most comprehensive memory battery available for the entire age range of 5 years through 59 years of age", the TOMAL-2 is an individually administered, 14-subtest instrument designed to assess broad-band verbal and nonverbal memory functions of clinical interest across the age-span, narrow-band memory skills like paired-associate learning and spatial memory, and learning via changes in recognition and recall across multiple trials. It is intended to be administered by examiners with some formal training in standardized assessment. Examiners are encouraged by test authors to investigate and acquire the necessary credentials in the state of practice to use this individually administered test of ability, however. It is also suggested that examiners carefully study the test manual and practice administer the TOMAL-2 at least twice before formally using the instrument. (Contains 1 table.)

This study reviews recent research related to the neurobiology of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) an provides an empirical analysis of current assessment practices. Data were collected through a survey of 117 school psychologists. The Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS), Gilliam Autism Rating Scale (GARS), and Gilliam Asperger's Disorder Scale (GADS) were the most frequently used measures. Among the less popular, but more intensive instruments, the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) appears to be gaining popularity within school-based evaluations. Generally, respondents approached the assessment of ASDs from a traditional psychoeducational perspective and reported the use of a very narrow range of ASD-specific instruments. Concerns are raised regarding the inconsistent inclusion of developmental questionnaires, parent/guardian interviews, and medical professionals in the ASD evaluation process. Implications for practice and the training of school psychologists are discussed. (Contains 3 tables)

The role of school psychologists with training in neuropsychology is examined within the context of multitiered models of service delivery and educational reform policies. An expanded role is suggested that builds on expertise in the assessment of neurodevelopmental disorders and extends to broader tiers through consultation practice. Changes in federal legislation to allow more flexible approaches toward assessment are viewed as a catalyst toward the integration of neuropsychological practice in school-based practice. As a set of priorities, recommendations are made for reforming assessment practice in schools, linking neuropsychological test results to academic treatment outcomes, and developing consultation practice with parents and teachers for early identification purposes and to integrate school-based services with community mental health services. (Contains 1 table.)

The purpose of this study is to develop a change-sensitive scale for evaluating developmental change in visual-motor ability across the life span. A partial-credit item-response model is used to estimate theta values for each age group between 4 and 90 using the Bender-Gestalt II standardization sample (N = 4,000). Results from this study suggest that visual-motor ability has a rapid maturation lasting into middle adolescence, steadily decreases through adulthood, and rapidly declines in later age ranges. These results provide evidence against previous research conclusions that suggested visual-motor ability development ends in late childhood and remains steady across the life span. A case study is provided to demonstrate the practical use of the change-sensitive scale in monitor intervention outcomes. (Contains 7 tables and 2 figures.)

This article reviews issues involved with using norm-referenced measures within an intervention validity model. Methodological examination of intervention validity has become more important as intervention methodologies have become part of federal legislation. However, current practice and federal guidelines often implicitly portray a dichotomy between individualized norm-referenced testing and intervention methodologies. This dichotomy is reified in the literature for various reasons. Consequently, it is not clear how information from individualized norm-referenced measures can be used within a treatment or intervention context. This article briefly addresses the perceived dichotomy between traditional psychoeducational assessment and behaviorally oriented assessments and discusses the importance of a multidimensional view of intervention that integrates multiple sources of information to guide intervention planning, implementation, and monitoring. Some practical applications of a hypothesis-testing model that integrates multiple sources of data with intervention-focused practices are used to integrate various assessment strategies for intervention purposes. (Contains 1 table and 3 figures.)

The authors describe the development of the Privilege and Oppression Inventory, a measure that assesses counselors' awareness of privilege and oppression along dimensions of race, sexual orientation, religion, and gender. Initial item development as well as psychometric information derived from factor analyses, reliability estimation, and validation procedures is presented. (Contains 4 tables.)

This study investigated the relationship of tactile abilities within the framework of a hierarchical structure of mental abilities. Data were analysed from 229 participants who were administered tactile measures from the Dean-Woodcock Sensory Motor Battery along with a battery of conormed cognitive measures representative of the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) model of intelligence. Multiple measures of tactile performance were used including Palm Writing and Object Identification, and each measure included a lateralized measure (i.e., right/left). Factor analytic results suggest tactile measures have a significant relationship with measures of cognitive ability. In this study, tactile measures involving object identification were more related to cognitive measures of visual processing-speed and overall processing speed; whereas, tactile measures involving the recognition of numbers written on the palm of the hand produced high loadings on a separate factor. Results from this study suggest different tactile measures may differentially load on cognitive factors depending on the common processing demands of the tactile and cognitive measures. Suggestions for differentiating common processing demands between tactile and cognitive measures are discussed. Keywords: tactile, intelligence, cognitive abilities DOI: 10.1037/a0015845