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Supplemental material, sj-docx-3-jiv-10.1177_08862605231153877 for Comparison of Person-Centered and Cumulative Risk Approaches in Explaining the Relationship Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Behavioral and Emotional Problems by George Hales, Agata Debowska, Richard Rowe, Daniel Boduszek and Liat Levita in Journal of Interpersonal Violence

Supplemental material, sj-docx-2-jiv-10.1177_08862605231153877 for Comparison of Person-Centered and Cumulative Risk Approaches in Explaining the Relationship Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Behavioral and Emotional Problems by George Hales, Agata Debowska, Richard Rowe, Daniel Boduszek and Liat Levita in Journal of Interpersonal Violence

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-jiv-10.1177_08862605231157444 for Attribution of Blame in an Intimate Partner Violence Situation: The Effect of Victim Sexuality and Observer Sex by Emily Hill, Georgia Moreland, Daniel Boduszek and Agata Debowska in Journal of Interpersonal Violence

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-jiv-10.1177_08862605231153877 for Comparison of Person-Centered and Cumulative Risk Approaches in Explaining the Relationship Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Behavioral and Emotional Problems by George Hales, Agata Debowska, Richard Rowe, Daniel Boduszek and Liat Levita in Journal of Interpersonal Violence

This study explores teachers’ accuracy in identifying mental health problems depicted in the vignettes, explores factors that contribute to teachers’ accuracy in identifying mental health problems and elaborates on how teachers identify mental health problems using a qualitative approach.

Due to the often-subtle nature of intimate partner violence (IPV) and the negative psychological effects that victims suffer, such as low self-esteem, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; Dutton et al., 2006; Matheson et al., 2015), it is not always obvious to victims that their situation is abusive. Thus, third-party perceptions can play an important role in supporting victims to seek help and leave their abuser. Research must therefore explore factors which result in unhelpful or inaccurate judgements, such as victim blame and perceptions of the victim being untrustworthy. The current study aims to assess whether these judgements of blame and credibility are impacted upon by (1) the type of abuse suffered by the victim, as research has shown that psychological abuse is both recognised less easily than physical abuse (Parker, 2015), and perceived as being less harmful (Dardis et al., 2017); and (2) the attractiveness of the victim, with reference to the attractiveness halo effect (Dion, Berscheid & Walster, 1972). The effects of participant age, sexist attitudes, domestic violence myth acceptance, and just-world beliefs will also be controlled.

This study investigates how effective middle and high-school teachers in Indonesia are as informants in identifying mental health problems in adolescents (13-18 years old) identified by parents and students as at risk of experiencing mental health issues. We will compare the correlation between Indonesian teachers’ reports with parental and self-report to corresponding correlations in a large-scale existing UK data set publicly available from the UK data archive.

Background. Schools tend to rely on teachers in recognizing mental health problems of the students. The efficacy of the teachers to identify mental health problems may vary between different forms of psychopathology. No information is available to date on the barriers that Indonesian teachers face when identifying mental health problems in their students, what support is required to help overcome these and the feasibility of mental health screening in Indonesian schools. In particular, we do not know if teachers would be receptive of help to improve their identification of children facing difficulties. To build a better understanding of the issues, this study will be conducted using a qualitative method. Aims. This present study aims to answer the following research questions: (1) How confident are teachers in Indonesia in identifying mental health problems in their students? (2) What are their needs and barriers when identifying mental health problems in students? (3) What are their opinions about the feasibility of mental health screening in schools? (4) What are their opinions about a training program aiming to improve their ability to identify mental health problems in students?

Maternal depression is a common risk factor that is associated with an increase in internalizing problems in children (Goodman et al., 2011; Perez-Grabow et al., 2017; Gjerde et al., 2017). It has been recognised that the relation between child-mother dyads is bidirectional; increase in child psychopathology may predict decrease in maternal functioning and vice versa. It is likely that mothers with depressive symptoms may experience elevated irritability and aggression, which in turn may increasing distress and behaviour problems in children (Pardini et al., 2008; Cummings et al., 2000). Moreover, children with anxiety and depression may make some mothers feel overwhelmed and frustrated, in turn intensifying the severity of maternal depression (Frye and Garber,2005). To make more robust inferences regarding the relation between maternal depression and child internalising symptoms, conducting studies disaggregating “within-individual change” and “between-individual change” is essential. While “between-individual change” refers to how much above the mean in another variable the people who are above the mean in one variable, “within-individual change” refers to a specific individual variation in a specific state over time (Wang& Maxwell, 2015; Rush & Hofer, 2014). Differentiating them helps to understand how fluctuation in one variable depends on the fluctuation of another variable. However, much of the literature examining the prospective effect of maternal depression has been limited to designs using analytic strategies such as traditional cross-lagged panel models (CLPM) that are unable to separate time-invariant trait-like variances between individuals. Thus, real within-person relationships over time cannot be isolated by the lag parameters obtained with CLPM, which may lead to misunderstanding the pattern of the relationships (Hamaker et al., 2015). Hope et al. (2019), for instance, used Millennium Cohort Study (MCS) data for children from age 3 to 11 and investigated the effect of maternal mental health on children's mental problems using directed acyclic graphs model (Gische et al., 2021), and found that long-term exposure of children to maternal stress negatively affects children's mental health. However, the study may not be able to show how the fluctuations of maternal depression effect prospectively fluctuation of child internalising over time, and vice versa, because of the methodological challenges of differentiating within-individual and between-individually changes from each other. As one of the most relevant studies to this research, Kouros and Garber (2010) examined 240 mothers and their children from 6th to 12th grades by examining “within-individual” change and showed that there is a reciprocal significant relationship between mother-child dyads at the within-person level. They found that child depression at time t+1 was predicted by maternal depression at time t, and vice versa, supporting the idea that internalisation problems in mother-child dyads effect each over time. However, factors that may modulate the relationship between parent and child was not observed in Kouros & Garber (2010)’s study (Griffith et al., 2021). Griffith et al (2021) have examined the reciprocal relation between parental depression and adolescent’s internalising symptoms with two independent samples during 2 and 3 years, respectively, with random intercept cross lagged panel model (RICLPM) which is able to distinguish within-person effects, state like level, while controlling for between-person, trait like level effects (Hamaker et al., 2015). Rather than a bidirectional relation, they only found that children with internalising symptoms predicted parental depression prospectively. Their focus, however, is on adolescents and results might be different in younger children. In addition, the study did not examine whether the relation between mother and children internalisation symptoms may differ regarding to children’s gender. There is a rich body of literature suggesting that girls tend to demonstrate more sensitivity to experiencing internalising problems than boys. Thus, they may be more vulnerable to the effect of fluctuations in their parent’s depression more (Hankin et al., 2007; Rudolph, 2002). In our study to explore prospective association between maternal depression and offspring's internalising symptoms across childhood to adolescence (ages between 3-17), we will use the same approach as Griffith et al (2021). We hypothesize that maternal depression and child internalising symptoms will be positively associated with each other prospectively such that within-individual fluctuation of maternal depressive symptoms would predict within-individual fluctuations of children’s internalising symptoms, in the same direction, vice versa. In addition, we hypotheses that strength the effect of prospective relation between mother depression and child’s internalising symptoms will be stronger through mother to child than child to mother for the ages between 3-11. We hypothesise that strength the effect of prospective relation between mother depression and child’s internalising symptoms will be stronger through child to mother than mother to child for the ages between 11-17. Lastly, we hypotheses that prospective effect of maternal depression on child’s internalising symptoms will be stronger for girl dyads more than boys.

Background Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are common in the general population. Child maltreatment is prevalent in the UK: 24.5% of young adults report having experienced at least one type of child maltreatment (Radford et al., 2013). Meta-analytic findings suggest there is an association between experiencing four or more ACEs in childhood and several adult outcomes including poor mental wellbeing, behavioural problems such as interpersonal violence, problematic drug or alcohol use, and sexual risk taking when compared to experiencing no ACEs (Hughes et al., 2017). However, study design is often inadequately matched to the putative relationship, with many studies use retrospective data or cross-sectional design to examine the temporal relationships between ACEs and outcomes across the lifespan. Prospective data are likely to produce results more insightful to prevention and intervention. Further, worse life satisfaction has been linked to ACE exposures (Mosley-Johnson et al., 2019), but again this has not been captured in prospective longitudinal studies that can control for temporal sequencing. It is important to understand the nature of this relationship because of the potential importance of life satisfaction as a resilience resource due to its implied representation of optimism and positivity about one’s life (see Logan-Greene et al., 2014). There is a clear need to examine these relationships using prospective data, and the inclusion of repeated measures has the additional benefit of controlling for autoregressive effects. The way in which ACEs are typically operationalised as a cumulative risk (summed score of categorical items) offers insight regarding the additive effect of present or absent ACEs. However, the cumulative risk approach to screening for ACEs has recently been criticised. While summed scores of ACEs are a good predictor of group differences in health outcomes, ACE scores are less effective at differentiating between individuals with good or poor health outcomes using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis (Baldwin et al., 2021). This seems to imply that there is more to the relationship between childhood adversity and later mental or behavioural outcomes than can be summarised by a cumulative risk score. For instance, specific co-occurrences of ACEs might be strongly associated with specific outcomes. Such a finding might prove useful to infer pathways from adversities to specific outcomes but would not be found using the cumulative risk approach. Indeed, the person-centred approach to childhood adversity has sought to illuminate such pathways. The person-centred approach involves using latent class analysis to classify unobserved groups into different typologies of co-occurring items (Lanza & Rhoades, 2013). A systematic review of latent class analyses applied to child maltreatment found that the presence of multiple abuse categories was associated with the worst outcomes, and that exposure to physical abuse and emotional abuse was frequently associated with behavioural problems (Debowska et al., 2017). This demonstrates the unique insights that can be gained by using the person-centred approach, which can be used to inform intervention or prevention efforts. In this instance, knowledge that a child has been exposed to physical and emotional abuse could instigate efforts to prevent future behavioural or conduct problems. A recent analysis submitted for publication found that latent classes of ACEs in 10-year-olds could be summarised by three typologies: low ACEs, household challenges, and community challenges (Hales et al., 2022). The household challenges class had a relatively high probability of physical discipline use and emotional abuse, whereas the community challenges class had a high probability of bullying victimisation, adverse neighbourhood, and emotional abuse. When related to outcomes, the community challenges class had substantially worse internalising and externalising difficulties compared to other classes. In the same study, the explanatory value of latent class models was compared with cumulative risk models, and while the cumulative risk approach explained more variance in most outcomes, the latent class approach explained more variance in peer relationship problems. Other recent findings have benefitted from conceptualising ACEs by ecology. For instance, a recent cross-sectional study found that family-related risks were better predictors of trauma symptoms for 2-9 year-old children, while peer and community risks were better predictors of symptoms for 10-17 year-olds (Turner et al., 2020). While these findings imply that risks are developmentally sensitive, the studies used cross-sectional data and so cannot be informative for temporal sequencing. This is a problem with much ACEs research, as few studies use prospective data to gather repeated measures of ACE exposure (see Sahle et al., 2021). It is important to control for temporal sequencing because it can be used to rule out plausible reverse causations (e.g. child externalising problems leading to household dysfunction). An examination of how ACEs impact children’s development using temporally sensitive data would therefore be informative. Specifically, a comparison between cumulative risk and clustered risk groups using cross-lagged analysis would provide a novel addition to the literature regarding ACEs. The analysis proposed below will be temporally sensitive, utilising panel data from the UK Household Longitudinal Study (University of Essex, 2020) to estimate cross-lagged panel models. The data contains repeated measure items that can fit into categories of household and community risks at three time points with approximately 2-year intervals between ages 10-15, which enables us to assess temporal sequencing and reverse causation, as well as changes over time. The clusters of risks will be created to match the distinctions made by Hales et al. (2022) and Turner et al. (2020), namely household risks and community risks. Household risks will include sibling victimisations, poor relationship with parents/stepparents, low income, and maternal psychological distress, while the community risks cluster will include bullying victimisation, adverse neighbourhood, and few close friends. On the other hand, the cumulative risk model will include all risks in the household and community clusters added together. This study will generate insights into how adversities influence internalising and externalising outcomes over time, as well as life satisfaction and delinquent acts.

Supplemental Material, sj-pdf-1-tva-10.1177_15248380221075087 for Links of Adversity in Childhood With Mental and Physical Health Outcomes: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Mediating and Moderating Mechanisms by George Kelvin Hales, Agata Debowska, Richard Rowe and Zeliha Ezgi Saribaz in Trauma, Violence, & Abuse