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Project management is used to coordinate effort during tasks, such as new product design, software engineering, and supply chain improvement. An essential component of project management is the communication plan that directs team members in their use of communication channels for information sharing during the project. Yet, few decision-making tools exist that can help project managers understand the tradeoffs of different communication plans. Herein we connect theory and practice to advance a computational model that provides objective-based assessments of communication plans and helps managers weigh tradeoffs of cost, time, and quality in the use of communication channels across the project. We draw on adaptive structuration theory to understand the impetus to utilize technology in group settings and media richness to explain the capabilities of channels that offer rich synchronous platforms (for e.g., phone, face-to-face, and web conference) and asynchronous lean approaches (for e.g., email, message board, and archive). We describe the tool based on a multiple-criteria decision making model. This model contributes a theoretically based decision support tool for project communication plans.

Both intrapersonal and interpersonal coordination dynamics have traditionally been investigated using relative phase patterns of in-phase (ϕ = 0°) and/or anti-phase (ϕ = 180°). Numerous investigations have demonstrated that coordination tasks that require other relative phase patterns (e.g., 90°) are difficult or near impossible to perform without extended practice. Recent findings, however, have demonstrated that an individual can produce a wide range of intrapersonal bimanual patterns within a few minutes of practice when provided integrated feedback. The present experiment was designed to directly compare intra- and interpersonal coordination performance and variability when provided Lissajous feedback or pacing metronome. Single participants (N = 12) and pairs of participants (N = 24, 12 pairs) were required to produce relative phase patterns between 0° and 180° in 30° increments using either pacing metronomes or Lissajous displays. The Lissajous displays involved a goal template and a cursor providing integrated feedback regarding the position of the two effectors. The results indicated both single and pairs of participants could effectively produce a large range of coordination patterns that typically act as repellers after only 6 min of practice when provided integrated feedback. However, single participants performed the in-phase coordination pattern more accurately and with less variability than paired participants, regardless of the feedback condition. These results suggest an advantage for intrapersonal coordination when performing in-phase coordination, possibly due to the stabilizing effect occurring via the neuro-muscular linkage between effectors.

Two experiments were designed to determine response biases resulting from production of force in the contralateral limb and head position. Participants were required to react with one limb while tracking a sinewave template by generating a pattern of force defined by the sinewave with the contralateral limb or watching a cursor move through the sinewave. In Experiment 1, participants had to react with their right or left limb while their head was in a neutral position. In Experiment 2, participants had to react with their left limb while their head was turned 60° to the left or right. A color change of the waveform signaled participants to produce an isometric contraction with the reacting limb. Reaction time was calculated as the time interval between the color change of the waveform and the initiation of the response. The results indicated mean reaction time for the left limb was significantly influenced by force production in the right limb. During left limb reactions, reaction time was faster for trials in which both limbs initiated force simultaneously as compared to trials in which the left limb initiated force while the right limb was producing force. Mean reaction time for the right limb was not influenced by force production in the contralateral limb. The results are consistent with the notion that crosstalk can influence the time required to react to stimuli but this influence occurs at the point of force initiation and is asymmetric in nature with the dominant limb exerting a stronger influence on the non-dominant limb than vice versa. However, we did not find a similar effect for head position via the tonic neck response.

In an experiment conducted by Kennedy et al. (Exp Brain Res 233:181–195, 2016), dominant right-handed individuals were required to produce a rhythm of isometric forces in a 2:1 or 1:2 bimanual coordination pattern. In the 2:1 pattern, the left limb performed the faster rhythm, while in the 1:2 pattern, the right limb produced the faster pattern. In the 1:2 pattern, interference occurred in the limb which had to produce the slower rhythm of forces. However, in the 2:1 condition, interference occurred in both limbs. The conclusion was that interference was not only influenced by movement frequency, but also influenced by limb dominance. The present experiment was designed to replicate these findings in dynamic bimanual 1:2 and 2:1 tasks where performers had to move one wrist faster than the other, and to determine the influence of limb dominance. Dominant left-handed (N = 10; LQ = − 89.81) and dominant right-handed (N = 14; LQ = 91.25) participants were required to perform a 2:1 and a 1:2 coordination pattern using Lissajous feedback. The harmonicity value was calculated to quantify the interference in the trial-time series. The analysis demonstrated that regardless of limb dominance, harmonicity was always lower in the slower moving limb than in the faster moving limb. The present results indicated that for dominant left- and dominant right-handers the faster moving limb influenced the slower moving limb. This is in accordance with the assumption that movement frequency has a higher impact on limb control in bimanual 2:1 and 1:2 coordination tasks than handedness.

An experiment was conducted to determine if the performance and learning of a multi-frequency (1:2) coordination pattern between the limbs are enhanced when a model is provided prior to each acquisition trial. Research has indicated very effective performance of a wide variety of bimanual coordination tasks when Lissajous plots with goal templates are provided, but this research has also found that participants become dependent on this information and perform quite poorly when it is withdrawn. The present experiment was designed to test three forms of modeling (Lissajous with template, Lissajous without template, and limb model), but in each situations, the model was presented prior to practice and not available during the performance of the task. This was done to decrease dependency on the model and increase the development of an internal reference of correctness that could be applied on test trials. A control condition was also collected, where a metronome was used to guide the movement. Following less than 7 min of practice, participants in the three modeling conditions performed the first test block very effectively; however, performance of the control condition was quite poor. Note that Test 1 was performed under the same conditions as used during acquisition. Test 2 was conducted with no augmented information provided prior to or during the performance of the task. Only participants in the limb model condition were able to maintain performance on Test 2. The findings suggest that a very simple intuitive display can provide the necessary information to form an effective internal representation of the coordination pattern which can be used guide performance when the augmented display is withdrawn.

An experiment was designed to determine the effects of sensory uncertainty on sensorimotor estimation in elite athletes compared to non-athletes. Nineteen elite athletes and 16 non-athletes were required to estimate when and where a cursor arrived at a target location. The cursor position was displayed through its entire trajectory in the certain condition while only briefly in the uncertain condition. Accuracy and variability in time and spatial domains were calculated. A Bayesian analysis using subsets of subjects' total spatial variance was also performed. The results indicated that athletes and non-athletes used estimation strategies consistent with Bayesian integration. The results also showed a decrease in variability for spatial performance for both groups during the uncertain condition compared to the certain condition, especially when the cursor location was further away from the prior mean. This decrease in variability was significantly greater for non-athletes. By concentrating performance around the end-point mean location, an increase in spatial error occurred. More spatial and timing errors were observed in non-athletes than athletes, indicating athletes were more certain about likelihood information or their interpretation of likelihood information than non-athletes. These results suggest that athletic experience may facilitate the use of probabilistic information for optimal sensorimotor estimations.

The current investigation was designed to examine the influence of inherent and incidental constraints on the stability characteristics associated with bimanual and social coordination. Individual participants (N = 9) and pairs of participants (N = 18, 9 pairs) were required to rhythmically coordinate patterns of isometric forces in 1:1 in-phase and 1:2 multi-frequency patterns by exerting force with their right and left limbs. Lissajous information was provided to guide performance. Participants performed 13 practice trials and 1 test trial per pattern. On the test trial, muscle activity from the triceps brachii muscles of each arm was recorded. EMG-EMG coherence between the two EMG signals was calculated using wavelet coherence. The behavioral data indicated that individual participants performed the 1:1 in-phase pattern more accurately and with less variability than paired participants. The EMG coherence analysis indicated significantly higher coherence for individual participants than for the paired participants during the 1:1 in-phase pattern, whereas no differences were observed between groups for the 1:2 coordination pattern. The results of the current investigation support the notion that neural crosstalk can stabilize 1:1 in-phase coordination when contralateral and ipsilateral signals are integrated via the neuromuscular linkage between two effectors.

Working in an isolated, confined, and extreme (ICE) environment, such as on a NASA deep space mission, will push the crew to work effectively as a team. In particular, the success of the mission may require the team to be able to engage in adaptation processes when challenges arise and be resilient to face such challenges. To better understand the importance of team adaptation and resilience of long-duration missions, we present a definitional model of team adaptation, integrate team resilience into this nomological network, and review research from NASA analog and other ICE settings. As it currently stands, the literature provides support for adaptation antecedents, processes and mediators, and outcomes in such settings. We translate our summary into lessons for pre-mission and during-mission interventions and countermeasures. Finally, we move the team’s adaptation and resilience literature forward, specifically within NASA analog and ICE environments, with future research directions.

Highlights • A susceptible, unsusceptible, exposed, infected, hospitalized, critical, dead, and recovered (SUEIHCDR) epidemiological compartmental model was used to simulate social distancing scenarios in the United States. • The model results provide specific guidelines to increase the probability of containing the pandemic at manageable levels with minimal impact on human life. • If people exercise caution while in public by protecting themselves (e.g., wearing a facemask, proper hand hygiene, avoiding agglomerations) the magnitude and duration of social distancing necessary to maintain control over the pandemic can be reduced. • Our models suggest that the most effective way to reduce SD over a two-year period is a stepping-down approach with steps every 80 days., Objectives To model the effects of continuous, intermittent, and stepping-down social distancing (SD) strategies and personal protection measures on COVID-19 transmission dynamics. Methods Constant, intermittent, and stepping-down SD strategies were modeled at 4 mean magnitudes (5%, 10%, 15% and 20%), 2 time windows (40-days, 80-days), and 2 levels of personal caution (30% and 50%). Results The stepping-down strategy was the best long-term SD strategy to minimize the peak number of active COVID-19 cases and associated deaths. The stepping-down strategy also resulted in a reduction in total time required to SD over a two-year period by 6.5% compared to an intermittent or constant SD strategy. An 80-day SD time-window was statistically more effective in maintaining control over the COVID-19 pandemic than a 40-day window. However, the results were dependent upon 50% of people being cautious (engaging in personal protection measures). Conclusion If people exercise caution while in public by protecting themselves (e.g., wearing a facemask, proper hand hygiene and avoid agglomeration) the magnitude and duration of SD necessary to maintain control over the pandemic can be reduced. Our models suggest that the most effective way to reduce SD over a two-year period is a stepping-down approach every 80 days. According to our model, this method would prevent a second peak and the number of intensive care units needed per day would be within the threshold of those currently available.

With COVID-19 surging across the world, understanding the effectiveness of intervention strategies on transmission dynamics is of primary global health importance. Here, we develop and analyze an epidemiological compartmental model using multi-objective genetic algorithm design optimization to compare scenarios related to strategy type, the extent of social distancing, time window, and personal protection levels on the transmission dynamics of COVID-19 in São Paulo, Brazil. The results indicate that the optimal strategy for São Paulo is to reduce social distancing over time with a stepping-down reduction in the magnitude of social distancing every 80-days. Our results also indicate that the ability to reduce social distancing depends on a 5–10% increase in the current percentage of people strictly following protective guidelines, highlighting the importance of protective behavior in controlling the pandemic. Our framework can be extended to model transmission dynamics for other countries, regions, states, cities, and organizations., Incidence of COVID-19 has been high in parts of South America including Brazil, and information on effective intervention strategies is needed. Here, the authors use mathematical modelling to show that reductions in social distancing should be made gradually to avoid a severe second peak of cases.

An epidemiological compartmental model was used to simulate social distancing strategies to contain the COVID-19 pandemic and prevent a second wave in São Paulo, Brazil. Optimization using genetic algorithm was used to determine the optimal solutions. Our results suggest the best-case strategy for São Paulo is to maintain or increase the current magnitude of social distancing for at least 60 more days and increase the current levels of personal protection behaviors by a minimum of 10% (e.g., wearing facemasks, proper hand hygiene and avoid agglomeration). Followed by a long-term oscillatory level of social distancing with a stepping-down approach every 80 days over a period of two years with continued protective behavior.

Whether a team is tasked with a developing a new product, incrementally improving an existing situation, or reacting to an emergency, all members of the project team must collectively discuss what they need to be doing, how they will do it, and when it will happen. To understand how these conversations may transpire, we use network pictographs and basic statistics to examine communication timing and pacing in this chapter. Timing identifies what topics a team may benefit from discussing early versus those that may be more appropriately considered later. Pacing will help team leaders consider when and how frequently teams may need to iterate among topics at various times over their lifecycles. The specific topics, timing, and pacing may differ depending upon the conditions under which the team is working. Planning the timing and pacing of conversations are rarely considered explicitly; yet, giving these communication aspects some consideration may facilitate more efficient interactions among team members.

Limited team research has focused on how communication evolves over time. To showcase what has been accomplished, a structured literature review was conducted and is described in this chapter. The purpose of the review is to (1) highlight the variety of approaches available for researchers to gather, code, analyze, and visualize longitudinal communication data and (2) demonstrate the breadth of knowledge about team interactions that can be obtained by implementing such approaches.

When teams are convened, they have many issues to discuss. Some of their conversations occur all at once; while, others require shifting among topics to make key decisions that reflect all the information available. Understanding how these conversations transpire, including when topics are discussed and in what order, may help teams perform effectively. In this chapter, we consider communication polyphony using event history analysis; specifically, we employ proportional hazard models and Andersen-Gill intensity models. This approach results in identifying the relationships among the points in time when teams complete conversations about specific topics. The findings from these analyses highlight the order in which topics are discussed, when action is initiated, how often teams cycle through various topics, and any relationships these points of interest have with team performance. Differences attributable to the conditions under which the teams collaborate are also examined.

Teams are ubiquitous in organizations. Yet, little is known about their dynamic team processes. One particular gap in our understanding is when and how often these types of processes are necessary. To address this gap, we examine longitudinal team communication exchanged among team members collaborating under different working conditions. In this chapter, we begin by summarizing what is known about longitudinal team communication. We then introduce the two theoretical frameworks used to guide our research, namely Marks et al. (2001) recurring phase model of team processes and Bartunek and Woodman’s (2015) temporal dimensions of organizational change. As well, we acknowledge that teams collaborate within a variety of contexts. Herein, we describe two aspects of context upon which we focus: communication media and time availability. The chapter concludes with an overview of the book and rationale for why researchers and practitioners may find value in reading it.

Team conversations ebb and flow as members collaborate to complete their tasks. This ebb and flow may be characterized as having varying degrees of stability, predictability, and complexity. In this chapter, we examine these characteristics to understand the rhythm of communication using recurrence quantification analysis, including constructing recurrence plots that facilitate visualizing the communication rhythm. Our results underscore when teams may benefit from focused versus cyclic conversations, whether those conversations should follow predictable patterns or be seemingly random, and if the time spent talking about specific topics should be consistent or vary over time. These insights may be dependent upon a variety of issues including where in the lifecycle the teams are, how much time they have to complete their task, and what media is available for communicating.

In this chapter, we examine communication sequences to identify different types of communication behaviors that may be most advantageous to teams. Specifically, we investigate how teams converse about our topics of interest by classifying both the topic (e.g., tactical strategy, mission analysis) and purpose (e.g., clarify, suggest, inform) of each exchanged message. We examine the sequential order in which these messages are transmitted and determine if any differences in sequence are attributable to the conditions under which the team is working or their performance on the assigned task. This investigation is accomplished using hierarchical cluster analysis and dendrograms that facilitate visualizing the results. Capturing how team communication unfolds at this level of detail highlights the types of messages or ordering of messages that may facilitate or impede team progress, thereby offering guidance about why seemingly similar teams often have varying performance.

Throughout this book, we have examined longitudinal team communication to glimpse into the inner workings of teams. Our efforts provide insights into what, when, how, and why team communication changes over time, including any corresponding impact on performance. Further, we have shown that conditions under which teams are collaborating matter. In this chapter, we bring these insights together to look holistically at what has been learned from this research. In particular, we translate the research findings into specific research recommendations and on-the-ground managerial implications. We then articulate the theoretical contributions that may be derived from our efforts and the value of expanding team researchers’ methodological toolboxes. While acknowledging the limitations of our study, we advance opportunities for new research in this area. We end with concluding thoughts about longitudinal team communication and the importance of considering it to be an integral component of a team’s journey worthy of focused consideration.

Previous theoretical and empirical work indicates that intentional changes in a bimanual coordination pattern depends on the stability of the bimanual coordination pattern (Kelso, Schotz, & Schoner, 1988; Scholz & Kelso, 1990). The present experiments retest this notion when online Lissajous displays are provided. Switching to and from in-phase and antiphase and to and from 90° and 270° were tested in Experiment 1. Participants were able to very effectively produce the 180°, 90°, and 270° coordination patterns although performance of the in-phase coordination task was even more stable. The data indicated that switching to in-phase from antiphase was more rapid than vice versa and that switching times between 90° to 270° were similar. Experiment 2 investigated switching between 1:2 and 2:1 bimanual coordination patterns. The results indicated that switching time was similar between the 2:1 and 1:2 coordination tasks and that increases in stability over practice resulted in additional decreases in switching times. This provides additional evidence that the attractor landscape is fundamentally different dependent on the type of information provided the performer. What remains to be done is to reconcile these results with the various theories/perspectives currently used to describe and explain bimanual coordination.

To better manage behavioral operations in project management, we demonstrate the value of quantitative model-based approaches in examining behaviors and generating insights for managerial research and practice. We focus on organizational members’ behaviors and interactions on large-scale projects using multi-team systems (MTS). While MTS invoke different behaviors than simpler team systems, research insights have lagged on MTS due to the complexity and resource intensity of capturing the multitude of behaviors and interactions by human subjects in real-world situations. Thus, MTS provides an apt context to demonstrate the mechanics of mathematically modeling human behavior and conducting virtual experiments via mixed-integer linear optimization to understand the way to meet operational objectives. Virtual experimentation is used to explore communication behaviors that unfold under different levels of project complexity and interdependence when time, cost, and quality operational objectives are considered independently or collectively. The results suggest that the type of communication plan set by project managers needs to change according to project attributes and objectives (maximize quality, minimize cost or minimize time). Moreover, this paper demonstrates the benefits of using operations research methods to assess behavioral patterns in an operational setting and establish propositions for targeted research in the field. In conclusion, benefits and limitations are put forth about the way Behavioral OR expands the traditional toolkit of human subject researchers in operations and beyond.

An experiment was designed to determine the impact of the force requirements on the pro-duction of bimanual 1:2 coordination patterns requiring the same (symmetric) or different(asymmetric) forces when Lissajous displays and goal templates are provided. TheLissajous displays have been shown to minimize the influence of attentional and percep-tual constraints allowing constraints related to neural crosstalk to be more clearlyobserved. Participants (N = 20) were randomly assigned to a force condition in which theleft or right limb was required to produce more force than the contralateral limb. In eachcondition participants were required to rhythmically coordinate the pattern of isometricforces in a 1:2 coordination pattern. Participant performed 13 practice trials and 1 test trialper force level. The results indicated that participants were able to effectively coordinatethe 1:2 multi-frequency goal patterns under both symmetric and asymmetric forcerequirements. However, consistent distortions in the force and force velocity time serieswere observed for one limb that appeared to be associated with the production of forcein the contralateral limb. Distortions in the force produced by the left limb occurredregardless of the force requirements of the task (symmetric, asymmetric) or whether theleft or right limb had to produce more force than the contralateral limb. However, distinctdistortions in the right limb occurred only when the left limb was required to produce 5times more force than the right limb. These results are consistent with the notion that neu-ral crosstalk can influence both limbs, but may manifest differently for each limb depend-ing on the force requirements of the task. UCR::Vicerrectoría de Docencia::Ciencias Sociales::Facultad de Educación::Escuela de Educación Física

An experiment was designed to determine whether accuracy constraints can influence how unimanual and bimanual motor sequences are produced and learned. The accuracy requirements of the task were manipulated using principles derived from Fitts' Law to create relatively low (ID = 3) and high (ID = 5) accuracy demands. Right-limb dominant participants (N = 28, age = 21.9 yrs; 15 females and 13 males) were required to produce unimanual left, unimanual right or bimanual movement sequences using elbow extension and flexion movements to hit a series of illuminated targets. The targets were illuminated in a repeating sequence of 16 elements. Participants performed 20 practice trials. Thirty minutes following the practice trials participants performed a retention test. Element duration (time interval between target hits) and segment harmonicity (hesitations/adjustments in movement pattern) were calculated. The results indicate longer element duration and lower harmonicity values (more adjustments) when the task required higher accuracy demands (ID = 5) compared to low accuracy demands (ID = 3). Element duration was shorter and harmonicity was higher at ID = 5 for both unimanual groups than the bimanual group. However, element duration was shorter and harmonicity was higher at ID = 3 for the bimanual group than for both unimanual groups. These results indicate that the accuracy demands of the task can influence both performance and learning of motor sequences and suggest differences between unimanual and bimanual motor sequence learning. It appears there is a bimanual advantage for tasks with lower accuracy demands whereas performance is more accurate with unimanual performance, regardless of limb, with higher accuracy demands. These results are consistent with recent research indicating that accuracy requirements change the control processes for bimanual performance differently than for unimanual tasks.

In the focal article, Britt, Shen, Sinclair, Grossman, and Klieger (2016) are rightfully concerned that the topic of resilience may become a “quicksand” term that is used by different audiences in different manners. However, we are more optimistic than the authors of the focal article, as several researchers at the team level of analysis have outlined frameworks that have attempted to tease apart team resilience from related constructs such as adaptation. Likewise, such work has also provided a deeper understanding of the factors that serve as antecedents to team resilience and adaptation, as well as how both constructs can shape subsequent team outcomes. Accordingly, the “sand” is starting to congeal at the team level of analysis, and we bring in these insights to extend the conversation about resilience.

An experiment by Boyle, Kennedy, and Shea (2012) demonstrated that practice tracking a template created from a sine wave results in enhanced performance and transfer on a reciprocal aiming task with an index of difficulty (ID) of 6. An experiment was conducted to determine whether tracking a template constructed from recorded participants' performance with ID = 6 would provide the same benefit. Participants were assigned to one of four groups (Fitts–master, Fitts–yoked, sine–master, and sine–yoked). After acquisition, visual templates were constructed for the Fitts–yoked and sine–yoked conditions. The templates were generated from the unique displacement data of the Fitts– and sine–master participants. These made up the training template for the Fitts– and sine–yoked participants. After acquisition, all participants were asked to perform test trials under their respective acquisition conditions (Test 1) and test trials under ID = 6 reciprocal aiming conditions (Test 2). Results indicated faster movement times in the sine-wave training groups on Test 2 than in both Fitts groups. These results indicate that the presentation of a tracking template can result in lower dwell times in the Fitts–yoked pairing on Test 2. However, the findings indicate the need to use templates that guide the movement in a way that promotes an equal acceleration–deceleration profile paired with smooth target reversal.

For nearly four decades bimanual coordination, "a prototype of complex motor skills" and apparent "window into the design of the brain," has been intensively studied. Past research has focused on describing and modeling the constraints that allow the production of some coordination patterns while limiting effective performance of other bimanual coordination patterns. More recently researchers have identified a coalition of perception-action constraints that hinder the effective production of bimanual skills. The result has been that given specially designed contexts where one or more of these constraints are minimized, bimanual skills once thought difficult, if not impossible, to effectively produce without very extensive practice can be executed effectively with little or no practice. The challenge is to understand how these contextual constraints interact to allow or inhibit the production of complex bimanual coordination skills. In addition, the factors affecting the stability of bimanual coordination tasks needs to be re-conceptualized in terms of perception-related constraints arising from the environmental context in which performance is conducted and action constraints resident in the neuromotor system.