Search

Complete hydatidiform moles (CHM) are purely androgenetic conceptions, with most (∼85%) arising from fertilization of an egg lacking maternal DNA by a single sperm that duplicates (homozygous/monospermic 46,XX) and a small subset arising via fertilization by 2 sperms (heterozygous/dispermic 46,XY or 46,XX). It remains controversial if heterozygous/dispermic CHMs have a significantly greater risk of persistent gestational trophoblastic disease. Analysis of zygosity of CHMs with and without invasion at presentation, including invasive CHMs with concurrent atypical trophoblastic proliferations concerning for or consistent with choriocarcinoma, has not been specifically addressed. In a prospective series of 1024 products of conception specimens subjected to immunohistochemical analysis of p57 expression and molecular genotyping with short tandem-repeat markers, 288 CHMs were diagnosed, of which 126 were genotyped, including 16 invasive CHMs. Zygosity was compared between those with and without invasion. Of the 16 study cases, 12 (75%) were homozygous/monospermic XX and 4 (25%) were heterozygous/dispermic (3 XY and 1 XX). Of the 110 genotyped noninvasive CHMs, 96 (87%) were homozygous/monospermic XX and 14 (13%) were heterozygous/dispermic (12 XY, 2 XX). Comparison of the zygosity results for the invasive CHMs (study group) with the noninvasive CHMs in the database did not demonstrate a statistically significant difference (P=0.24, Fisher exact test). In addition, of the 3 cases associated with metastatic gestational trophoblastic disease (pulmonary nodules) at presentation, 2 were homozygous/monospermic XX, indicating that this form is not without risk of significant gestational trophoblastic disease. Thus, the current study has demonstrated a higher frequency of heterozygous/dispermic CHMs among invasive cases compared with those lacking invasion, but does not support the use of zygosity data for risk assessment of CHMs. A persistent, unresolved diagnostic challenge identified in some invasive CHMs is interpretation of accompanying florid atypical trophoblastic proliferations which raise concern for choriocarcinoma. Future studies should address the need for reproducible diagnostic criteria and molecular biomarkers for distinguishing florid hyperplastic from malignant neoplastic trophoblastic proliferations.

Immunohistochemical analysis of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1C (CDKN1C, p57, Kip2) expression and molecular genotyping accurately classify hydatidiform moles into complete and partial types and distinguish these from non-molar specimens. Characteristics of a prospective series of all potentially molar specimens encountered in a large gynecologic pathology practice are summarized. Initially, all specimens were subjected to both analyses; this was later modified to triage cases for genotyping based on p57 results: p57-negative cases diagnosed as complete hydatidiform moles without genotyping; all p57-positive cases genotyped. Of the 678 cases, 645 were definitively classified as complete hydatidiform mole (201), partial hydatidiform mole (158), non-molar (272), and androgenetic/biparental mosaic (14); 33 were unsatisfactory, complex, or problematic. Of the 201 complete hydatidiform moles, 104 were p57-negative androgenetic and an additional 95 were p57-negative (no genotyping), 1 was p57-positive (retained maternal chromosome 11) androgenetic, and 1 was p57-non-reactive androgenetic; 90 (85%) of the 106 genotyped complete hydatidiform moles were monospermic and 16 were dispermic. Of the 158 partial hydatidiform moles, 155 were diandric triploid, with 154 p57-positive, 1 p57-negative (loss of maternal chromosome 11), and 1 p57-non-reactive; 3 were triandric tetraploid, with 2 p57-positive and 1 p57-negative (loss of maternal chromosome 11). Of 155 diandric triploid partial hydatidiform moles, 153 (99%) were dispermic and 2 were monospermic. Of the 272 non-molar specimens, 259 were p57-positive biparental diploid, 5 were p57-positive digynic triploid, 2 were p57-negative biparental diploid (no morphological features of biparental hydatidiform mole), and 6 were p57-non-reactive biparental diploid. Of the 14 androgenetic/biparental mosaics with discordant p57 expression, 6 were uniformly mosaic and 8 had a p57-negative androgenetic molar component. p57 expression is highly correlated with genotyping, serves as a reliable marker for diagnosis of complete hydatidiform moles, and identifies androgenetic cell lines in mosaic conceptions. Cases with aberrant and discordant p57 expression can be correctly classified by genotyping.

Recent studies have demonstrated the value of ancillary techniques, including p57 immunohistochemistry and short tandem repeat genotyping, for distinguishing hydatidiform moles (HM) from nonmolar specimens and for subtyping HMs as complete hydatidiform moles (CHM) and partial hydatidiform moles (PHM). With rare exceptions, CHMs are p57-negative and androgenetic diploid; partial hydatidiform moles are p57-positive and diandric triploid; and nonmolar specimens are p57-positive and biparental diploid. Androgenetic/biparental mosaic/chimeric conceptions can have morphologic features that overlap with HMs but are genetically distinct. This study characterizes 11 androgenetic/biparental mosaic/chimeric conceptions identified in a series of 473 products of conception specimens subjected to p57 immunohistochemistry and short tandem repeat genotyping. Fluorescence in situ hybridization was performed on 10 to assess ploidy. All cases were characterized by hydropically enlarged, variably sized and shaped villi. In 5 cases, the villi lacked trophoblastic hyperplasia, whereas in 6 there was a focal to extensive villous component with trophoblastic hyperplasia and features of CHM. The villi lacking trophoblastic hyperplasia were characterized by discordant p57 expression within individual villi (p57-positive cytotrophoblast and p57-negative stromal cells), whereas the villous components having trophoblastic hyperplasia were uniformly p57-negative in both cell types. Short tandem repeat genotyping of at least 2 villous areas in each case demonstrated an excess of paternal alleles in all regions, with variable paternal:maternal allele ratios (usually >2:1); pure androgenetic diploidy was identified in those cases with a sufficiently sized villous component having trophoblastic hyperplasia and features of CHM. Fluorescence in situ hybridization demonstrated uniform diploidy in 7 cases, including 4 of 5 tested cases with trophoblastic hyperplasia and 3 of 5 cases without trophoblastic hyperplasia. Two cases without trophoblastic hyperplasia had uniformly diploid villous stromal cells but 1 had triploid and 1 had tetraploid cytotrophoblast; 1 case with trophoblastic hyperplasia had uniformly diploid villous stromal cells but a mixture of diploid, triploid, and tetraploid cytotrophoblast. In 3 cases with a CHM component, persistent gestational trophoblastic disease developed. These results indicate that androgenetic/biparental mosaic/chimeric conceptions are most often an admixture of androgenetic diploid (p57-negative) and biparental diploid (p57-positive) cell lines but some have localized hyperdiploid components. Recognition of their distinctive p57 expression patterns and genotyping results can prevent misclassification as typical CHMs, PHMs, or nonmolar specimens. The presence of androgenetic cell lines, particularly in those with a purely androgenetic CHM component, warrants follow-up because of some risk of persistent gestational trophoblastic disease.

Holoprosencephaly (HPE) is a developmental defect in humans in which the forebrain fails to completely separate into two hemispheres. We describe a 12 3/7-week-old fetus found on ultrasound evaluation to have features consistent with HPE, including a single anterior ventricle, fused thalami, and a flattened profile. Cytogenetic analysis of chorionic villi revealed a ring chromosome 7 [r(7)]. This uncommon finding has been associated with growth delay, microcephaly, and dermatologic abnormalities. However, both the clinical features and the extent of cytogenetic imbalance of chromosome 7 are variable, and few reported cases of r(7) have been molecularly studied. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a prenatally identified r(7), molecularly characterized using array comparative genomic hybridization.

Distinction of hydatidiform moles from nonmolar specimens (NMs) and subclassification of hydatidiform moles as complete hydatidiform mole (CHM) and partial hydatidiform mole (PHM) are important for clinical practice and investigational studies; however, diagnosis based solely on morphology is affected by interobserver variability. Molecular genotyping can distinguish these entities by discerning androgenetic diploidy, diandric triploidy, and biparental diploidy to diagnose CHMs, PHMs, and NMs, respectively. Eighty genotyped cases (27 CHMs, 27 PHMs, 26 NMs) were selected from a series of 200 potentially molar specimens previously diagnosed using p57 immunohistochemistry and genotyping. Cases were classified by 6 pathologists (3 faculty level gynecologic pathologists and 3 fellows) on the basis of morphology, masked to p57 immunostaining and genotyping results, into 1 of 3 categories (CHM, PHM, or NM) during 2 diagnostic rounds; a third round incorporating p57 immunostaining results was also conducted. Consensus diagnoses (those rendered by 2 of 3 pathologists in each group) were also determined. Performance of experienced gynecologic pathologists versus fellow pathologists was compared, using genotyping results as the gold standard. Correct classification of CHMs ranged from 59% to 100%; there were no statistically significant differences in performance of faculty versus fellows in any round (P-values of 0.13, 0.67, and 0.54 for rounds 1 to 3, respectively). Correct classification of PHMs ranged from 26% to 93%, with statistically significantly better performance of faculty versus fellows in each round (P-values of 0.04, <0.01, and <0.01 for rounds 1 to 3, respectively). Correct classification of NMs ranged from 31% to 92%, with statistically significantly better performance of faculty only in round 2 (P-values of 1.0, <0.01, and 0.61 for rounds 1 to 3, respectively). Correct classification of all cases combined ranged from 51% to 75% by morphology and 70% to 80% with p57, with statistically significantly better performance of faculty only in round 2 (P-values of 0.69, <0.01, and 0.15 for rounds 1 to 3, respectively). p57 immunostaining significantly improved recognition of CHMs (P<0.01) and had high reproducibility (κ=0.93 to 0.96) but had no impact on distinction of PHMs and NMs. Genotyping provides a definitive diagnosis for the ∼25% to 50% of cases that are misclassified by morphology, especially those that are also unresolved by p57 immunostaining.

We describe 19 unrelated individuals with submicroscopic deletions involving 10p15.3 characterized by chromosomal microarray (CMA). Interestingly, to our knowledge, only two individuals with isolated, submicroscopic 10p15.3 deletion have been reported to date; however, only limited clinical information is available for these probands and the deleted region has not been molecularly mapped. Comprehensive clinical history was obtained for 12 of the 19 individuals described in this study. Common features among these 12 individuals include: cognitive/behavioral/developmental differences (11/11), speech delay/language disorder (10/10), motor delay (10/10), craniofacial dysmorphism (9/12), hypotonia (7/11), brain anomalies (4/6) and seizures (3/7). Parental studies were performed for nine of the 19 individuals; the 10p15.3 deletion was de novo in seven of the probands, not maternally inherited in one proband and inherited from an apparently affected mother in one proband. Molecular mapping of the 19 individuals reported in this study has identified two genes, ZMYND11 (OMIM 608668) and DIP2C (OMIM 611380; UCSC Genome Browser), mapping within 10p15.3 which are most commonly deleted. Although no single gene has been identified which is deleted in all 19 individuals studied, the deleted region in all but one individual includes ZMYND11 and the deleted region in all but one other individual includes DIP2C. There is not a clearly identifiable phenotypic difference between these two individuals and the size of the deleted region does not generally predict clinical features. Little is currently known about these genes complicating a direct genotype/phenotype correlation at this time. These data however, suggest that ZMYND11 and/or DIP2C haploinsufficiency contributes to the clinical features associated with 10p15 deletions in probands described in this study., (Copyright © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Distinction of hydatidiform moles (HMs) from nonmolar specimens (NMs) and subclassification of HMs as complete hydatidiform moles (CHMs) and partial hydatidiform moles (PHMs) are important for clinical practice and investigational studies; yet, diagnosis based solely on morphology is affected by interobserver variability. Molecular genotyping can distinguish these entities by discerning androgenetic diploidy, diandric triploidy, and biparental diploidy to diagnose CHMs, PHMs, and NMs, respectively. Eighty genotyped cases (27 CHMs, 27 PHMs, and 26 NMs) were selected from a series of 200 potentially molar specimens previously diagnosed using p57 immunostaining and genotyping. Cases were classified by 3 gynecologic pathologists on the basis of H&E slides (masked to p57 immunostaining and genotyping results) into 1 of 3 categories (CHM, PHM, or NM) during 2 diagnostic rounds; a third round incorporating p57 immunostaining results was also conducted. Consensus diagnoses (those rendered by 2 of 3 pathologists) were determined. Genotyping results were used as the gold standard for assessing diagnostic performance. Sensitivity of a diagnosis of CHM ranged from 59% to 100% for individual pathologists and from 70% to 81% by consensus; specificity ranged from 91% to 96% for individuals and from 94% to 98% by consensus. Sensitivity of a diagnosis of PHM ranged from 56% to 93% for individual pathologists and from 70% to 78% by consensus; specificity ranged from 58% to 92% for individuals and from 74% to 85% by consensus. The percentage of correct classification of all cases by morphology ranged from 55% to 75% for individual pathologists and from 70% to 75% by consensus. The κ values for interobserver agreement ranged from 0.59 to 0.73 (moderate to good) for a diagnosis of CHM, from 0.15 to 0.43 (poor to moderate) for PHM, and from 0.13 to 0.42 (poor to moderate) for NM. The κ values for intraobserver agreement ranged from 0.44 to 0.67 (moderate to good). Addition of the p57 immunostain improved sensitivity of a diagnosis of CHM to a range of 93% to 96% for individual pathologists and 96% by consensus; specificity was improved from a range of 96% to 98% for individual pathologists and 96% by consensus; there was no substantial impact on diagnosis of PHMs and NMs. Interobserver agreement for interpretation of the p57 immunostain was 0.96 (almost perfect). Even with morphologic assessment by gynecologic pathologists and p57 immunohistochemistry, 20% to 30% of cases will be misclassified, and, in particular, distinction of PHMs and NMs will remain problematic.

Distinction of hydatidiform moles from nonmolar specimens and their subclassification as complete (complete hydatidiform mole) versus partial hydatidiform mole (PHM) are important for clinical practice and investigational studies to refine ascertainment of risk of persistent gestational trophoblastic disease, which differs among these entities. Immunohistochemical analysis of p57 expression, a paternally imprinted maternally expressed gene on 11p15.5, and molecular genotyping are useful for improving diagnosis. Here, we describe a first trimester abortus with morphologic features consistent with a hydatidiform mole and p57 expression pattern supporting a diagnosis of PHM. Short tandem repeat (STR) genotyping and fluorescent in-situ hybridization analysis showed tetraploidy with 3 paternal and 1 maternal chromosome complements. To our knowledge, this is the first description of a tetraploid PHM confirmed to be triandric by STR analysis, and the first description of p57 immunostaining in a confirmed triandric tetraploid PHM. This case highlights the complex nature of the genetics that can be encountered in molar specimens and illustrates that STR genotyping, in contrast to fluorescent in-situ hybridization or ploidy analysis, offers the advantage of determining the parental origin of chromosome complements for refined diagnosis of hydatidiform moles.

Distinction of hydatidiform moles (HM) from nonmolar specimens and their subclassification as complete (CHM) versus partial hydatidiform mole (PHM) are important for clinical practice and investigational studies to refine ascertainment of risk of persistent gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD), which differs among these entities. Immunohistochemical analysis of p57 expression, a paternally imprinted maternally expressed gene on 11p15.5, and molecular genotyping are useful for improving diagnosis. CHMs are characterized by androgenetic diploidy, with loss of p57 expression due to lack of maternal DNA. Loss of p57 expression distinguishes CHMs from both PHMs (diandric triploidy) and nonmolar specimens (biparental diploidy), which retain expression. We report a unique HM characterized by morphologic features suggesting an early CHM, including lack of p57 expression by immunohistochemistry, but with genetic features more in keeping with a PHM. Specifically, molecular genotyping by short tandem repeat markers provided evidence to support interpretation as a PHM by demonstrating allele patterns and ratios most consistent with diandric triploidy, with evidence of loss of the maternal copy of chromosome 11 to explain the lack of p57 expression. This case illustrates the value of combined traditional pathologic and ancillary molecular techniques for refined diagnosis of molar specimens. It also raises questions regarding which modalities should be used to ultimately define the subtypes of HMs and whether chromosomal losses or gains, particularly involving imprinted genes such as p57, might play a role in modifying risk of persistent GTD.

Distinction of hydatidiform moles from nonmolar specimens and subclassification of hydatidiform moles as complete hydatidiform mole (CHM), partial hydatidiform mole (PHM), or early CHM are important for both clinical practice and investigational studies. The risk of persistent gestational trophoblastic disease and hence, clinical management, differs for CHMs, PHMs, and nonmolar specimens. However, diagnosis based solely on morphology suffers from poor interobserver reproducibility and remains problematic even for experienced gynecologic pathologists. The unique genetic features of CHMs (androgenetic diploidy), PHMs (diandric triploidy), and nonmolar specimens (biparental diploidy) allow for certain molecular techniques, including immunohistochemical analysis of p57 expression (a paternally imprinted maternally expressed gene) and molecular genotyping, to refine the diagnosis of hydatidiform moles. Although p57 immunostaining alone can identify CHMs, which lack p57 expression because of the lack of maternal DNA, this analysis cannot distinguish PHMs from nonmolar specimens as both express p57 because of the presence of maternal DNA. Short tandem repeat genotyping, which can determine the parental source of polymorphic alleles, can distinguish among all of these entities by discerning androgenetic diploidy, diandric triploidy, and biparental diploidy to rigorously diagnose CHMs, PHMs, and nonmolar specimens, respectively. An algorithmic approach using these techniques to refine morphologic diagnosis has been developed for routine practice. This review discusses current issues in the diagnosis of hydatidiform moles, including the limitations of morphologic diagnosis, the need for refined diagnosis to assure accurate ascertainment of risk of persistent gestational trophoblastic disease associated with the different subtypes of hydatidiform moles, the use of ancillary immunohistochemical and molecular techniques for providing such refined diagnosis, and problems that can be encountered with these techniques.

Two brothers, with dissimilar clinical features, were each found to have different abnormalities of chromosome 20 by subtelomere fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). The proband had deletion of 20p subtelomere and duplication of 20q subtelomere, while his brother was found to have a duplication of 20p subtelomere and deletion of 20q subtelomere. Parental cytogenetic studies were initially thought to be normal, both by G-banding and by subtelomere FISH analysis. Since chromosome 20 is a metacentric chromosome and an inversion was suspected, we used anchored FISH to assist in identifying a possible inversion. This approach employed concomitant hybridization of a FISH probe to the short (p) arm of chromosome 20 with the 20q subtelomere probe. We identified a cytogenetically non-visible, mosaic pericentric inversion of one of the maternal chromosome 20 homologs, providing a mechanistic explanation for the chromosomal abnormalities present in these brothers. Array comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) with both a custom-made BAC and cosmid-based subtelomere specific array (TEL array) and a commercially available SNP-based array confirmed and further characterized these rearrangements, identifying this as the largest pericentric inversion of chromosome 20 described to date. TEL array data indicate that the 20p breakpoint is defined by BAC RP11-978M13, approximately 900 kb from the pter; SNP array data reveal this breakpoint to occur within BAC RP11-978M13. The 20q breakpoint is defined by BAC RP11-93B14, approximately 1.7 Mb from the qter, by TEL array; SNP array data refine this breakpoint to within a gap between BACs on the TEL array (i.e., between RP11-93B14 and proximal BAC RP11-765G16)., (Copyright 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

Human subtelomere regions contain numerous gene-rich segments and are susceptible to germline rearrangements. The availability of diagnostic test kits to detect subtelomeric rearrangements has resulted in the diagnosis of numerous abnormalities with clinical implications including congenital heart abnormalities and mental retardation. Several of these have been described as clinically recognizable syndromes (e.g., deletion of 1p, 3p, 5q, 6p, 9q, and 22q). Given this, fine-mapping of subtelomeric breakpoints is of increasing importance to the assessment of genotype-phenotype correlations in these recognized syndromes as well as to the identification of additional syndromes. We developed a BAC and cosmid-based DNA array (TEL array) with high-resolution coverage of 10 Mb-sized subtelomeric regions, and used it to analyze 42 samples from unrelated patients with subtelomeric rearrangements whose breakpoints were previously either unmapped or mapped at a lower resolution than that achievable with the TEL array. Six apparently recurrent subtelomeric breakpoint loci were localized to genomic regions containing segmental duplication, copy number variation, and sequence gaps. Small (1 Mb or less) candidate gene regions for clinical phenotypes in separate patients were identified for 3p, 6q, 9q, and 10p deletions as well as for a 19q duplication. In addition to fine-mapping nearly all of the expected breakpoints, several previously unidentified rearrangements were detected., ((c) 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

Submicroscopic deletion of the 6p25 subtelomere has recently been recognized as a clinically identifiable syndrome. To date, more than 30 cases have been described with variable cytogenetically visible 6p deletions. Terminal 6p deletions result in a clinically distinguishable phenotype. The focus of this review is the phenotype associated with isolated terminal deletions of 6p25, and specifically isolated submiscroscopic subtelomere deletions. A distinct phenotype has emerged consisting of developmental delay/mental retardation, language impairment, hearing loss, and ophthalmologic, cardiac, and craniofacial abnormalities. These features demonstrate considerable clinical overlap with the Ritscher-Schinzel (or cranio-cerebello-cardiac (3C)) syndrome (OMIM #220210). Isolated submiscroscopic 6p25 subtelomere terminal deletion has been reported in 11 individuals, two of whom are siblings. Cytogentic and molecular mapping of the 6p25 deletion boundary has been reported in 8 of these 10 unrelated individuals with isolated submiscroscopic subtelomere deletion. This analysis has revealed substantial phenotypic overlap between individuals with submicroscopic terminal 6p deletions and those with large, cytogenetically visible deletions of the region suggesting that the critical genes contributing to the main clinical and developmental features lie in the terminal region of 6p25., ((c) 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

The Cornelia de Lange syndrome (CdLS) (OMIM# 122470) is a dominantly inherited multisystem developmental disorder. The phenotype consists of characteristic facial features, hirsutism, abnormalities of the upper extremities ranging from subtle changes in the phalanges and metacarpal bones to oligodactyly and phocomelia, gastroesophageal dysfunction, growth retardation, and neurodevelopmental delay. Prevalence is estimated to be as high as 1 in 10,000. Recently, mutations in NIPBL were identified in sporadic and familial CdLS cases. To date, mutations in this gene have been identified in over 45% of individuals with CdLS. NIPBL is the human homolog of the Drosophila Nipped-B gene. Although its function in mammalian systems has not yet been elucidated, sequence homologs of Nipped-B in yeast (Scc2 and Mis4) are required for sister chromatid cohesion during mitosis, and a similar role was recently demonstrated for Nipped-B in Drosophila. In order to evaluate NIPBL role in sister chromatid cohesion in humans, metaphase spreads on 90 probands (40 NIPBL mutation positive and 50 NIPBL mutation negative) with CdLS were evaluated for evidence of precocious sister chromatid separation (PSCS). We screened 50 metaphases from each proband and found evidence of PSCS in 41% (compared to 9% in control samples). These studies indicate that NIPBL may play a role in sister chromatid cohesion in humans as has been reported for its homologs in Drosophila and yeast., ((c) 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

Cornelia de Lange syndrome (CdLS; OMIM 122470) is a dominantly inherited disorder characterized by multisystem involvement, cognitive delay, limb defects, and characteristic facial features. Recently, mutations in NIPBL have been found in approximately 50% of individuals with CdLS. Numerous chromosomal rearrangements have been reported in individuals with CdLS. These rearrangements may be causative of a CdLS phenotype, result in a phenocopy, or be unrelated to the observed phenotype. We describe two half siblings with a der(3)t(3;12)(p25.3;p13.3) chromosomal rearrangement, clinical features resembling CdLS, and phenotypic overlap with the del(3)(p25) phenotype. Region-specific BAC probes were used to fine-map the breakpoint region by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). FISH analysis places the chromosome 3 breakpoint distal to RP11-115G3 on 3p25.3; the chromosome 12 breakpoint is distal to BAC RP11-88D16 on 12p13.3. A review of published cases of terminal 3p deletions and terminal 12p duplications indicates that the findings in these siblings are consistent with the del(3)(p25) phenotype. Given the phenotypic overlap with CdLS, we have reviewed the reported cases of chromosomal rearrangements involved in CdLS to better elucidate other potential loci that could harbor additional CdLS genes. Additionally, to identify chromosome rearrangements, genome-wide array comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) was performed on eight individuals with typical CdLS and without identifiable deletion or mutation of NIPBL. No pathologic rearrangements were identified., ((c) 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

We have identified six children in three families with subtelomeric deletions of 6p25 and a recognizable phenotype consisting of ptosis, posterior embryotoxon, optic nerve abnormalities, mild glaucoma, Dandy-Walker malformation, hydrocephalus, atrial septal defect, patent ductus arteriosus, and mild mental retardation. There is considerable clinical overlap between these children and individuals with the Ritscher-Schinzel (or cranio-cerebello-cardiac (3C)) syndrome (OMIM #220210). Clinical features of 3C syndrome include craniofacial anomalies (macrocephaly, prominent forehead and occiput, foramina parietalia, hypertelorism, down-slanting palpebral fissures, ocular colobomas, depressed nasal bridge, narrow or cleft palate, and low-set ears), cerebellar malformations (variable manifestations of a Dandy-Walker malformation with moderate mental retardation), and cardiac defects (primarily septal defects). Since the original report, over 25 patients with 3C syndrome have been reported. Recessive inheritance has been postulated based on recurrence in siblings born to unaffected parents and parental consanguinity in two familial cases. Molecular and cytogenetic mapping of the 6p deletions in these three families with subtelomeric deletions of chromosome 6p have defined a 1.3 Mb minimally deleted critical region. To determine if 6p deletions are common in 3C syndrome, we analyzed seven unrelated individuals with 3C syndrome for deletions of this region. Three forkhead genes (FOXF1 and FOXQ1 from within the critical region, and FOXC1 proximal to this region) were evaluated as potential candidate disease genes for this disorder. No deletions or disease-causing mutations were identified.

The Cornelia de Lange syndrome (CdLS) is a multisystem developmental disorder characterized by facial dysmorphia, upper-extremity malformations, hirsutism, cardiac defects, growth and cognitive retardation, and gastrointestinal abnormalities. Both missense and protein-truncating mutations in NIPBL, the human homolog of the Drosophila melanogaster Nipped-B gene, have recently been reported to cause CdLS. The function of NIPBL in mammals is unknown. The Drosophila Nipped-B protein facilitates long-range enhancer-promoter interactions and plays a role in Notch signaling and other developmental pathways, as well as being involved in mitotic sister-chromatid cohesion. We report the spectrum and distribution of NIPBL mutations in a large well-characterized cohort of individuals with CdLS. Mutations were found in 56 (47%) of 120 unrelated individuals with sporadic or familial CdLS. Statistically significant phenotypic differences between mutation-positive and mutation-negative individuals were identified. Analysis also suggested a trend toward a milder phenotype in individuals with missense mutations than in those with other types of mutations.

Cornelia de Lange syndrome (CdLS; OMIM 122470) is a dominantly inherited multisystem developmental disorder characterized by growth and cognitive retardation; abnormalities of the upper limbs; gastroesophageal dysfunction; cardiac, ophthalmologic and genitourinary anomalies; hirsutism; and characteristic facial features. Genital anomalies, pyloric stenosis, congenital diaphragmatic hernias, cardiac septal defects, hearing loss and autistic and self-injurious tendencies also frequently occur. Prevalence is estimated to be as high as 1 in 10,000 (ref. 4). We carried out genome-wide linkage exclusion analysis in 12 families with CdLS and identified four candidate regions, of which chromosome 5p13.1 gave the highest multipoint lod score of 2.7. This information, together with the previous identification of a child with CdLS with a de novo t(5;13)(p13.1;q12.1) translocation, allowed delineation of a 1.1-Mb critical region on chromosome 5 for the gene mutated in CdLS. We identified mutations in one gene in this region, which we named NIPBL, in four sporadic and two familial cases of CdLS. We characterized the genomic structure of NIPBL and found that it is widely expressed in fetal and adult tissues. The fly homolog of NIPBL, Nipped-B, facilitates enhancer-promoter communication and regulates Notch signaling and other developmental pathways in Drosophila melanogaster.

Iddm4 is one of several susceptibility genes that have been identified in the BB rat model of type 1 diabetes. The BB rat allele of this gene confers dominant predisposition to diabetes induction by immune perturbation in both the diabetes-prone and the diabetes-resistant substrains, whereas the Wistar Furth (WF) allele confers resistance. We have positioned the gene in a 2.8-cM region on rat Chromosome (Chr) 4, proximal to Lyp/Ian4l1. We have produced a radiation hybrid map of the Iddm4-region that includes a number of rat genes with their mouse and human orthologs. We present a comparative map of the rat Iddm4 region in rat, human, and mouse, assigning the gene to a 6.3-Mb segment between PTN and ZYX at 7q32 in the human genome, and to a 5.7-Mb segment between Ptn and Zyx in the mouse genome.

Viral antibody-free BBDR and WF rats never develop spontaneous diabetes. BBDR rats, however, develop autoimmune diabetes after perturbation of the immune system, e.g., by viral infection. We previously identified a disease-susceptibility locus in the BBDR rat, iddm4, which is associated with the development of autoimmune diabetes after treatment with polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid and an antibody that depletes ART2(+) regulatory cells. We have now developed lines of congenic WF.iddm4 rats and report that in an intercross of N5 generation WF.iddm4 rats, approximately 70% of animals either homozygous or heterozygous for the BBDR origin allele of iddm4 became hyperglycemic after treatment to induce diabetes. Fewer than 20% of rats expressing the WF origin allele of iddm4 became diabetic. Testing the progeny of various recombinant N5 WF.iddm4 congenic rats for susceptibility to diabetes suggests that iddm4 is centered on a small segment of chromosome 4 bounded by the proximal marker D4Rat135 and the distal marker D4Got51, an interval of <2.8 cM. The allele at iddm4 has 79% sensitivity and 80% specificity in prediction of diabetes in rats that are segregating for this locus. These characteristics suggest that iddm4 is one of the most powerful non-major histocompatibility complex determinants of susceptibility to autoimmune diabetes described to date.