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This study investigates (1) the impact of structuring versus reflection-provoking support on university students' adoption of socially shared metacognitive regulation (SSMR) during face-to-face peer tutoring (PT) and (2) the relation between SSMR and group performance. A quasi-experimental design was adopted, involving 72 educational sciences students who were randomly assigned to PT-groups of six. Each group was provided with either structuring (SS) or reflection-provoking (RS) support. The training and closing PT-session of six groups in each support condition were videotaped (48 h). SSMR was studied by means of systematic observation of video-recorded PT sessions, whereas PT groups' score on the assignment during the last PT session served as performance measure. The results revealed only significant differences in SSMR between both support conditions, when the proportion of students actively involved in SSMR, was taken into consideration. More specifically, PT groups in the RS condition revealed significantly more SSMR in which (nearly) all students are engaged, as compared with PT groups in the SS condition. The correlational analyses further indicated that only SSMR representing a high participation degree of (nearly) all students is significantly positively related to PT groups' performance.

The present study aims at investigating whether events of socially shared metacognitive regulation (SSMR) differ from each other when comparing their characteristics. These differences are labelled "variations in SSMR". The study is conducted in a peer tutoring setting at university and includes video data (70 h of video recordings) on the regulation behaviour of thirty students who participated in a semester-long peer tutoring intervention that was directed at knowledge co-construction. In addition to studying variations in SSMR, the current study aims at examining whether individual students' engagement in variations in SSMR is related to their performance on a knowledge test taken immediately after the peer tutoring intervention. Latent class cluster models were run to explore the presence of variations in SSMR. The trigger for SSMR, the number of students actively involved in SSMR, the level of elaboration during SSMR, and the function of SSMR in the collaborative learning process were included in the model as input parameters. A four-cluster model was selected as the best fitting model that demonstrated statistical significance. The four identified variations of SSMR were labelled as 'interrogative SSMR', 'affirmative SSMR', 'interfering SSMR', and 'progressive SSMR'. Regression analyses revealed that not all variations in SSMR are equally important for predicting students' performance. Students' engagement in interrogative SSMR was significantly positively related to students' performance on the knowledge test, whereas their engagement in interfering SSMR was negatively related. In contrast, the frequency of students' involvement in affirmative SSMR or progressive SSMR demonstrated no significant relation with students' performance. By unravelling the multifaceted character of SSMR, the present study allows to extend and to refine the emerging theory on shared regulation.

The present study investigates collaborative learners' adoption of key regulation activities (i.e., orienting, planning, monitoring, and evaluating) and a deep-level regulation approach in relation to characteristics of their collaboration on the cognitive and communicative level. More specifically, the correlation of collaborative learners' regulation behavior with respectively their content processing strategies and the level of transactivity in their discussions is analyzed. The study is conducted in a naturalistic reciprocal peer tutoring (RPT) setting in higher education. Sessions of five randomly selected RPT groups participating in a semester-long RPT intervention were videotaped (70 h). Binary logistic regressions were performed to examine how RPT participants' metacognitive regulation is related to their content processing and transactive discussions. Results reveal that students' adoption of key regulation activities is significantly correlated with their adoption of content processing strategies, although different correlations are revealed for particular regulation activities. Additionally, RPT participants' adoption of regulation activities is significantly related to students' transactive discussions, both when reacting to each other's cognitive and metacognitive contributions. With regard to RPT participants' adoption of a deep-level regulation approach, the results show significant correlations with higher-order content processing as well as with representational and operational transactive discussions, in which students respectively paraphrase or elaborate on each other's contributions. The present study's micro-analytical examination of RPT participants' learning and regulation processes contributes important insights to the literature on collaborative learners' regulation, providing input for stronger theoretical models and facilitating instructors' adequate support of collaborative learners.

We aimed to investigate how metacognitive regulation is characterised during collaborative learning in a higher education reciprocal peer tutoring (RPT) setting. Sixty-four Educational Sciences students participated in a semester-long RPT-intervention and tutored one another in small groups of six. All sessions of five randomly selected RPT-groups were videotaped (70 h of video recordings). Analyses were focussed on identifying time-bound evolutions with regard to (a) the frequency of occurrence of metacognitive regulation, (b) the low-/deep-level approach to regulation, and (c) the initiative (by tutors/tutees) for metacognitive regulation. Logistic regression models allowing change points were adopted to study evolutions over time. The results indicated that RPT-groups increasingly adopt metacognitive regulation (i.e. orientation and evaluation) as the RPT-intervention progressed. Regarding RPT-groups' regulative approach, the results revealed a significant evolution towards deep-level metacognitive regulation (i.e. orientation and monitoring), despite a dominant adoption of low-level regulation strategies. With regard to the initiative, the results demonstrated that tutees started to initiate RPT-groups' monitoring significantly more frequently as they became familiar with the RPT-setting. Orientation, planning, and evaluation remained tutor-centred responsibilities.

The study examines whether structuring (SS) versus problematising scaffolds (PS) differently affect reciprocal peer-tutoring (RPT) groups' adoption of particular regulation skills, deep-level regulation, and tutee-initiated regulation. A quasi-experimental design involving two experimental groups (SS versus PS condition) was adopted. The first, third, and sixth RPT-session of eight randomly selected RPT-groups (four from the SS condition, four from the PS condition) were videotaped (48hr). Mixed ANOVAs were conducted to investigate the impact of both scaffold types on RPT-groups' metacognitive regulation. The results indicate that neither scaffold type encourages RPT-groups into a balanced adoption of, or initiative for, regulation skills and a deep-level approach. Nevertheless, the PS condition significantly outperforms the SS condition in evoking deep-level monitoring, tutee-initiated orientation, and tutee-initiated monitoring.

Although successful learning in university education can be advanced by students' competence to self-regulate their learning, students often possess insufficient metacognitive regulation skills to regulate their learning adequately. The present study investigates changes in university students' adoption of metacognitive regulation after participating in reciprocal peer tutoring (RPT). A quasi-experimental pretest--posttest design was adopted, involving an experimental (n = 51) and two control groups; CG1 (n = 24) and CG2 (n = 22). Experimental students participated in a RPT intervention during a complete semester. Metacognitive regulation was assessed by means of think-aloud protocol analysis. Results indicate that RPT is promising to promote metacognitive regulation. Experimental students increasingly adopt monitoring, evaluation, and orientation and significantly evolve towards deep-level regulation from pretest to posttest. Except for an increased use of low-level comprehension monitoring, none of the evolutions in experimental students' regulation could be discerned for students in both control groups.

Although successful collaborative learning requires socially shared metacognitive regulation (SSMR) of the learning process among multiple students, empirical research on SSMR is limited. The present study contributes to the emerging research on SSMR by examining its correlation with both collaborative learners' content processing strategies and the level of transactivity in their discussions. The study is, more specifically, conducted in an authentic higher education reciprocal peer tutoring (RPT) setting. All sessions of a semester-long RPT-intervention of five randomly selected RPT-groups were videotaped (70 h of video recordings). Literature-based coding instruments were developed to analyse RPT-groups' SSMR, content processing strategies (i.e., questioning and explaining), cognitively-oriented and metacognitively-oriented transactive discussions. In order to examine how RPT-groups' SSMR is related to their content processing and transactive discussions, binary logistic regression analyses were conducted. The results indicate that both questioning and explaining are positively associated with SSMR. Especially deep content processing shows a strong relationship. Further, both cognitively-oriented and metacognitively-oriented transactive discussions significantly increase the probability of RPT-groups engaging in SSMR. More specifically, transactive discussions in which RPT-participants elaboratively operate on each other's metacognitive regulation appear to be conducive. In contrast, non-transactive discussions are not significantly associated with SSMR.

It is widely recognized that metacognition is an important mediator for successful and high-level learning, especially in higher education. Nevertheless, a majority of higher education students possess insufficient metacognitive knowledge and regulation skills to self-regulate their learning adequately. This study explores the potential of reciprocal peer tutoring to promote both university students' metacognitive knowledge and their metacognitive regulation skills. The study was conducted in a naturalistic higher education setting, involving 67 students tutoring each other during a complete semester. A multi-method pretest-posttest design was used combining a self-report questionnaire, assessing students' metacognitive knowledge and their perceived metacognitive skilfulness, with the analysis of think-aloud protocols, revealing students' actual use of metacognitive strategies. Results indicate no significant pretest to posttest differences in students' metacognitive knowledge, nor in their perception of metacognitive skill use. In contrast, significant changes are observed in students' actual metacognitive regulation. At posttest, students demonstrate significantly more frequent and more varied use of metacognitive regulation, especially during the orientation, monitoring, and evaluation phases. Furthermore, our findings point to an increase in more profound and higher-quality strategy use at posttest.