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OxlT, the oxalate/formate exchanger of Oxalobacter formigenes, is a member of the major facilitator superfamily of transporters. In the present work, substrate (oxalate) was found to enhance the reactivity of the cysteine mutant S336C on the cytoplasmic end of helix 11 to methanethiosulfonate ethyl carboxylate. In addition, S336C is found to spontaneously cross-link to S143C in TM5 in either native or reconstituted membranes under conditions that support transport. Continuous wave EPR measurements are consistent with this result and indicate that positions 143 and 336 are in close proximity in the presence of substrate. These two residues are localized within helix interacting GxxxG-like motifs (G₁₄₀LASG₁₄₄ and S₃₃₆DIFG₃₄₀) at the cytoplasmic poles of TM5 and TM11. Pulse EPR measurements were used to determine distances and distance distributions across the cytoplasmic or periplasmic ends of OxlT and were compared with the predictions of an inside-open homology model. The data indicate that a significant population of transporter is in an outside-open configuration in the presence of substrate; however, each end of the transporter exhibits significant conformational heterogeneity, where both inside-open and outside-open configurations are present. These data indicate that TM5 and TM11, which form part of the transport pathway, transiently close during transport and that there is a conformational equilibrium between inside-open and outside-open states of OxlT in the presence of substrate.

Outer-membrane TonB-dependent transporters, such as the Escherichia coli ferric citrate transporter FecA, interact with the inner-membrane protein TonB through an energy-coupling segment termed the Ton box. In FecA, which regulates its own transcription, the Ton box is preceded by an N-terminal extension that interacts with the inner-membrane protein FecR. Here, site-directed spin labeling was used to examine the structural basis for transcriptional signaling and Ton box regulation in FecA. EPR spectroscopy indicates that regions of the N-terminal domain are in conformational exchange, consistent with its role as a protein binding element; however, the local fold and dynamics of the domain are not altered by substrate or TonB. Distance restraints derived from pulse EPR were used to generate models for the position of the extension in the apo, substrate-, and TonB-bound states. In the apo state, this domain is positioned at the periplasmic surface of FecA, where it interacts with the Ton box and blocks access of the Ton box to the periplasm. Substrate addition rotates the transcriptional domain and exposes the Ton box, leading to a disorder transition in the Ton box that may facilitate interactions with TonB. When a soluble fragment of TonB is bound to FecA, the transcriptional domain is displaced to one edge of the barrel, consistent with a proposed β-strand exchange mechanism. However, neither substrate nor TonB displaces the N-terminus further into the periplasm. This result suggests that the intact TonB system mediates both signaling and transport by unfolding portions of the transporter.

Synaptotagmin 1 (syt1) is a synaptic vesicle-anchored membrane protein that acts as the calcium sensor for the synchronous component of neuronal exocytosis. Using site-directed spin labeling, the position and membrane interactions of a fragment of syt1 containing its two C2 domains (syt1C2AB) were assessed in bilayers containing phosphatidylcholine (PC), phosphatidylserine (PS), and phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP(2)). Addition of 1 mol % PIP(2) to a lipid mixture of PC and PS results in a deeper membrane penetration of the C2A domain and alters the orientation of the C2B domain so that the polybasic face of C2B comes into the proximity of the bilayer interface. The C2B domain is found to contact the membrane interface in two regions, the Ca(2+)-binding loops and a region opposite the Ca(2+)-binding loops. This suggests that syt1C2AB is configured to bridge two bilayers and is consistent with a model generated previously for syt1C2AB bound to membranes of PC and PS. Point-to-plane depth restraints, obtained by progressive power saturation, and interdomain distance restraints, obtained by double electron-electron resonance, were obtained in the presence of PIP(2) and used in a simulated annealing routine to dock syt1C2AB to two membrane interfaces. The results yield an average structure different from what is found in the absence of PIP(2) and indicate that bilayer-bilayer spacing is decreased in the presence of PIP(2). The results indicate that PIP(2), which is necessary for bilayer fusion, alters C2 domain orientation, enhances syt1-membrane electrostatic interactions, and acts to drive vesicle and cytoplasmic membrane surfaces closer together.

Synaptotagmin 1 (syt1) functions as a Ca(2+)-sensor for neuronal exocytosis. Here, site-directed spin labeling was used to examine the complex formed between a soluble fragment of syt1, which contains its two C2 domains, and the neuronal core soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) complex. Changes in electron paramagnetic resonance lineshape and accessibility for spin-labeled syt1 mutants indicate that in solution, the assembled core SNARE complex contacts syt1 in several regions. For the C2B domain, contact occurs in the polybasic face and sites opposite the Ca(2+)-binding loops. For the C2A domain, contact is seen with the SNARE complex in a region near loop 2. Double electron-electron resonance was used to estimate distances between the two C2 domains of syt1. These distances have broad distributions in solution, which do not significantly change when syt1 is fully associated with the core SNARE complex. The broad distance distributions indicate that syt1 is structurally heterogeneous when bound to the SNAREs and does not assume a well-defined structure. Simulated annealing using electron paramagnetic resonance-derived distance restraints produces a family of syt1 structures where the Ca(2+)-binding regions of each domain face in roughly opposite directions. The results suggest that when associated with the SNAREs, syt1 is configured to bind opposing bilayers, but that the syt1/SNARE complex samples multiple conformational states.

Synaptotagmin 1 (syt1) is a synaptic vesicle membrane protein that functions as the Ca(2)(+) sensor in neuronal exocytosis. Here, site-directed spin labeling was used to generate models for the solution and membrane-bound structures of a soluble fragment of syt1 containing its two C2 domains, C2A and C2B. In solution, distance restraints between the two C2 domains of syt1 were measured using double electron-electron resonance and used in a simulated annealing routine to generate models for the structure of the tandem C2A-C2B fragment. The data indicate that the two C2 domains are flexibly linked and do not interact with each other in solution, with or without Ca(2+). However, the favored orientation is one where the Ca(2+)-binding loops are oriented in opposite directions. A similar approach was taken for membrane-associated C2A-C2B, combining both distances and bilayer depth restraints with simulated annealing. The restraints can only be satisfied if the Ca(2+) and membrane-binding surfaces of the domains are oriented in opposite directions so that C2A and C2B are docked to opposing bilayers. The result suggests that syt1 functions to bridge across the vesicle and plasma membrane surfaces in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner.

Synaptotagmin I is a synaptic vesicle associated membrane protein that appears to regulate Ca(2+)-mediated exocytosis. Here, the Ca(2+)-dependent membrane interactions of a water soluble fragment of synaptotagmin I (C2AB) that contains its two C2 domains (C2A and C2B) were determined using site-directed spin labeling. Membrane depth parameters were obtained for 19 spin-labeled mutants of C2AB when bound to phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylserine membranes, and these distance constraints were used in combination with the high-resolution structures of C2A and C2B to generate a model for the membrane orientation and position of synaptotagmin at the bilayer interface. Both C2A and C2B bind to the membrane interface with their first and third Ca(2+) binding loops penetrating the membrane interface. The polybasic face of C2B does not interact with the membrane lipid but is available for electrostatic interaction with other components of the fusion machinery. When compared to positions determined previously for the isolated domains, both C2A and C2B have similar orientations; however, the two domains are positioned deeper into the bilayer interior when present in the tandem construct. These data indicate that C2A and C2B do not act independently but influence their mutual membrane penetration. This may explain the occurrence of multiple C2 domains in proteins that function in membrane trafficking and repair.

ESCRT-I is required for the sorting of integral membrane proteins to the lysosome, or vacuole in yeast, for cytokinesis in animal cells, and for the budding of HIV-1 from human macrophages and T lymphocytes. ESCRT-I is a heterotetramer of Vps23, Vps28, Vps37, and Mvb12. The crystal structures of the core complex and the ubiquitin E2 variant and Vps28 C-terminal domains have been determined, but internal flexibility has prevented crystallization of intact ESCRT-I. Here we have characterized the structure of ESCRT-I in solution by simultaneous structural refinement against small-angle X-ray scattering and double electron–electron resonance spectroscopy of spin-labeled complexes. An ensemble of at least six structures, comprising an equally populated mixture of closed and open conformations, was necessary to fit all of the data. This structural ensemble was cross-validated against single-molecule FRET spectroscopy, which suggested the presence of a continuum of open states. ESCRT-I in solution thus appears to consist of an approximately 50% population of one or a few related closed conformations, with the other 50% populating a continuum of open conformations. These conformations provide reference points for the structural pathway by which ESCRT-I induces membrane buds.

Synaptotagmin 1 (syt 1) is a vesicle anchored membrane protein consisting of two C2 domains that acts as the Ca2+ sensor in neuronal exocytosis. Neuronal fusion is mediated by the SNAREs and the interaction of syt 1 with the SNARE complex is thought to be critical to this process. Using site-direct spin labeling and continuous wave EPR, three sites of interaction on a soluble fragment of syt 1 were identified to the soluble core SNARE complex that occur in a Ca2+ independent manner. These include: the polybasic region of the C2B domain, the sites opposite to Ca2+ binding loop of C2B, and a region near loop 2 of C2A. The distances between the C2A and C2B domains of syt 1 were measured using pulse EPR in solution and in the presence of the soluble core SNARE complex under conditions where syt1 is completely bound to SNAREs. The distances, which have broad distributions, are virtually unchanged in the presence of SNAREs indicating that the two C2 domains assume relative orientations that are heterogeneous when bound to the SNAREs. Moreover, the two C2 domains assume a roughly antiparallel orientation. When reconstituted into bilayers composed of POPC:POPS (3:1), the SNAREs associate with the C2 domains of syt1, but only in the absence of Ca2+. Under this set of conditions, ternary interactions between syt1/SNAREs and membranes are not observed. A model for the molecular function of syt1 based upon these data will be presented. (supported by NIGMS, GM 072694).

The Ca2+-independent membrane interactions of the soluble C2 domains from synaptotagmin 1 (syt1) were characterized using a combination of site-directed spin labeling and vesicle sedimentation. The second C2 domain of syt1, C2B, binds to membranes containing phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylcholine in a Ca2+-independent manner with a lipid partition coefficient of approximately 3.0 × 102 M− 1. A soluble fragment containing the first and second C2 domains of syt1, C2A and C2B, has a similar affinity, but C2A alone has no detectable affinity to phosphatidylcholine/phosphatidylserine bilayers in the absence of Ca2+. Although the Ca2+-independent membrane affinity of C2B is modest, it indicates that this domain will never be free in solution within the cell. Site-directed spin labeling was used to obtain bilayer depth restraints, and a simulated annealing routine was used to generate a model for the membrane docking of C2B in the absence of Ca2+. In this model, the polybasic strand of C2B forms the membrane binding surface for the domain; however, this face of C2B does not penetrate the bilayer but is localized within the aqueous double layer when C2B is bound. This double-layer location indicates that C2B interacts in a purely electrostatic manner with the bilayer interface. In the presence of Ca2+, the membrane affinity of C2B is increased approximately 20-fold, and the domain rotates so that the Ca2+-binding loops of C2B insert into the bilayer. This Ca2+-triggered conformational change may act as a switch to modulate the accessibility of the polybasic face of C2B and control interactions of syt1 with other components of the fusion machinery.

Synaptotagmin I (Syt I) appears to act as the Ca2+ sensor in neuronal exocytosis and it is known to interact both with membranes and with SNAREs, which form the conserved core protein machinery for the fusion process. The interactions of Syt I with membranes were examined here with a combination of vesicle sedimentation and site-directed spin labeling (SDSL). Several interesting features of the interaction are revealed. First, Syt I binds to PC/PS bilayers in a Ca2+-independent manner though one of its cytosolic C2 domains, C2B. The interaction is mediated by the polybasic region of C2B domain, which associates in the electrostatic double-layer, but does not penetrate into the bilayer interior. Second, the affinity of C2B is increased approximately 20 fold in the presence of Ca2+ and now interacts through its Ca2+-binding loops. Remarkably, in the presence of Ca2+, C2A, C2B and a tandem fragment containing both C2A and C2B have approximately the same affinity, indicating the free energy of C2 domain interactions in Syt 1 are not additive. This may be due to demixing of the PS in the bilayer or the effects of curvature strain that are induced by the C2 domains. Finally, PI(4,5)P2 is a lipid that is critical to membrane fusion. Our preliminary data indicate that the addition of 1 mol% PI(4,5)P2 has little effect on the Ca2+-dependent binding of C2A; however, the membrane binding of both C2B and the tandem C2A-C2B domains is enhanced by PI(4,5)P2. As seen for other polybasic segments, the C2 domains appear to sequester or alter the lateral distribution of PI(4,5)P2 in the bilayer.

Synaptotagmin 1 (syt1) is a synaptic vesicle protein believed to act as the Ca2+ sensor for neuronal exocytosis. It consists of one N-terminal transmembrane helical segment and two C2 domains (C2A and C2B) that are connected by a short, flexible linker. The calcium binding loops of each C2 domain coordinate Ca2+ ions and bind anionic phospholipids. Syt1 also interacts with the neuronal SNARE proteins, which may play a role in the fusion process. We are characterizing the structure of syt1 both in its aqueous and membrane bound states and bound to the soluble core SNARE complex. Double cysteine mutations were engineered into a water soluble fragment of syt1 C2A-C2B and derivatized with the methanethiosulfonate spin label. Four-pulse DEER was used to obtain distance measurements between C2A and C2B in solution, with membranes, and bound to the soluble SNARE complex. The DEER-derived distances were used as restraints in a simulated annealing routine. The predominant structure is one where the C2 domains are separated by about 40 Angstroms and are oriented anti-parallel so that their Ca2+-binding loops are positioned in opposite directions. Broad distance distributions are obtained by DEER, and indicate structural heterogeneity which may be the result of the flexible linker segment joining the two domains. This structural arrangement does not change when the protein is bound to membranes or the soluble SNARE complex. Furthermore, C2A-C2B is shown to bridge bilayers, which is mediated by multiple contacts of the positive charged regions of the C2B domain and the anti-parallel orientation of C2A and C2B. The result suggests that one role for syt1 in fusion is to bridge across the vesicle and plasma membrane surfaces in a Ca2+-dependent manner. The work was supported by NIGMS grant GM 72694.