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Technologies utilizing radiological materials across power generation, defence, industry, research and medicine have increased the global inventory of highly active and hazardous materials. Consequently, an amplified threat exists of illicitly obtained materials being used as part of hostile acts. The potential for intentional releases occurs alongside risks from natural disasters or facility accidents. In any such event, it is crucial to rapidly assess the release composition and extent of response and remediation activities. Therefore, the deployment of an effective, resilient and autonomous radiation monitoring network is pivotal both during and after an incident. Underpinning this assessment is a detailed understanding of the pre-event or background, radiation levels, the knowledge of which is also essential in assessing a population’s dosimetric exposure to, and impact from anthropogenic and naturally occurring/varying sources of ionizing radiation. Presented here is a fully operational cloud-based spectroscopic radiation mapping platform comprising IoT modules compatible with cellular networks, without modification, in over 180 countries. Combined with locally roaming vehicles, a continuous multi-pass radiological characterization of an urban environment was performed. Such IoT devices are deployable as either individual sensors for specific localized temporal events or integrated over a greater time period (and area) to represent a larger static sensor. Over several months of continued operation, more than 1000 000 individual location-referenced gamma-ray spectra were collected and securely uploaded, in real-time, to an online cloud database and automatically characterized via a custom multi-step workflow. Fine-scale local variations in the radiological fingerprint of a 1 km × 1 km urban area were subsequently rendered in near-real-time to an interactive secure online graphical dashboard for temporal, spatial and spectral interrogation by the user. Considerations for the automated ‘elastic’ handling of ever-expanding volumes of input data have been carried out, facilitating propagation and expansion of the system’s database without human input.

There has been an increased awareness of paints and pigments as a source of by-product PCBs in the environment. The majority of existing work has focused only on reporting the presence of the main PCBs in different products with a specific focus on the most PCB congeners, PCB11 and PCB209. This gives the impression that only a handful of PCBs are found in paints. However, this is not the case. PCB profiles in paints and pigments can be just as complex as commercial technical mixtures. This review identified the presence of 149 different PCBs in paint samples. For reference, only 141 different PCBs have been reported in all of the 5 main commercial Aroclor formulations (A1016, A1242, A1248, A1254 (earlylate) and A1260). The total PCB concentrations in some paint samples can be substantial, with concentrations as high as 919 mg kg

This study performed the first environmental and dietary exposure assessment to explore plant uptake of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) from agricultural soil and irrigation water in the Nakdong River delta, South Korea. Annual average concentrations of total PFOA and PFOS ranged from 0.026 to 0.112 µg L−1 (irrigation water), and from 0.818 to 1.364 µg kg−1 (soil), respectively. PFOA and PFOS hotspots were identified downstream of the Nakdong River and were influenced by seasonal climatic variations. The observed average biennial concentration of the sum of PFOA and PFOS decreased in irrigation water, from 0.112 µg L−1 in 2013 to 0.026 µg L−1 in 2015, suggests that the 2013 Persistent Organic Pollutants Control Act may have helped to reduce levels of PFAS at this location. This study calculated some of the highest plant uptake factors reported to date, with values ranging from 0.962 in green onions to

Traditional medicine beliefs are culturally important in some West African communities, where there is a thriving domestic consumer demand for wild animal derivatives. Yet, such practices can threaten the conservation of wild populations and negatively impact animal welfare. To identify those species most likely to be affected, we investigated wildlife derivative trade at the largest fetish market of West Africa in Togo. Specifically, we asked what wild animals or animal products were most profitable, which wild animals were perceived by vendors to have increased most in rarity and what they were used for. A key question was whether vendors also sold plant-based alternatives. Vendors provided 36 local animal names, from which we inferred an estimated 281 species. Thirteen percent of these inferred species are categorised on the IUCN Red List as threatened (n = 35); 26% are declining (n = 72). The most commonly cited most profitable wildlife derivatives were “Pangolin” and “Python”; the most commonly cited most profitable live wild animal was “Chameleon”. Overall, wildlife use was predominantly spiritual rather than medicinal. Plant-based alternatives were available, but comprised < 40% of sales and appeared to be considered less important or less useful than wild animal products. The legal status of this domestic trade in Togo is unclear given the existence of potentially conflicting national legislation. In addition to further research focused on the actual impacts on populations and individuals of the species indicated, socio-economic importance of this trade, societal pressures driving consumer demand and an assessment of the feasibility of sustainable plant-based alternatives is warranted.

All radiological measurements acquired from airborne detectors suffer from the issues of geometrical signal dilution, signal attenuation and a complex interaction of the effective sampling area of the detector system with the 3D structure of the surrounding environment. Understanding and accounting for these variables is essential in recovering accurate dose rate maps that can help protect responding workforces in radiologically contaminated environments.Two types of terrain-cognisant methods of improving source localisation and the contrast of airborne radiation maps are presented in this work, comprising of ‘Point Cloud Constrained 3D Backprojection’ and ‘Point Cloud Constrained Randomised Kaczmarz Inversion’. Each algorithm uses a combination of airborne gamma-spectrometry and 3D scene information collected by UAS platforms and have been applied to data collected with lightweight, simple (non-imaging) detector payloads at numerous locations across the Chornobyl Exclusion Zone (CEZ).Common to both the algorithms is the projection of the photopeak intensity onto a point cloud representation of the environment, taking into account the position and orientation of the UAS in addition to the 3D response of the spectrometer. The 3D Backprojection method can be considered a relatively fast method of mapping of through proximity, in which the measured photopeak intensity is split over the point cloud according to the above factors. It is an additive technique, with each measurement increasing the overall magnitude of the radiation field assigned to the survey area, meaning that more measurements continues to increase the total radiation of the site. The total measured intensity of the solution is then normalised according to the time spent in proximity to each point in the scene, determined by splitting and projecting the nominal measurement time at each survey point over the point cloud according to the distance from the survey position. Thus accounting for sampling biases during the survey.The inversion approach adapts algorithms routinely used in medical imaging for the unconstrained world in which the detector is no longer completely surrounding the subject/target. A forward projection model, based on the contribution of distant point sources to the detector intensity, is used to determine the relationship between the full set of measurements and the 3D scene. This results in a hypercube of linear equations where it is assumed every point in the scene contributes to the measured intensity. The algorithm randomly adds measurements from within the aerial set and back-projects this onto the point cloud, with the initial state of the solution set to emit no radiation. After a given number of iterations, the fit of the current solution to the original measurements is assessed though a least squares method and updated when this produces a fit better than the current best estimate. This continues to happen until a minimum value is reached before the divergence of the system, representing the most confident solution. Based on examples from both simulations and real world data, the improvement in contrast of airborne maps using this inversion method can make them equivalent to ground-based surveys, even when operating at 20 m AGL and above.

Endosulfan was widely used as an insecticide in the agricultural sector before its environmental persistence was fully understood. Although its fate and transport in the environment have been studied, the effects of historic endosulfan residues in soil and its bioaccumulation in crops are not well understood. This knowledge gap was addressed by investigating the dissipation and bioaccumulation of endosulfan in ginseng as a perennial crop in fresh and aged endosulfan-contaminated fields. In addition, the effect of granular biochar (GBC) treatment on the bioaccumulation factor (BAF) of endosulfan residue in ginseng was assessed. The 50% dissipation time (DT50) of the total endosulfan was over 770 days in both the fresh and aged soils under mulching conditions. This was at least twofold greater than the reported (6– > 200 days) in arable soil. Among the endosulfan congeners, the main contributor to the soil residue was endosulfan sulfate, as observed from 150 days after treatment. The BAF for the 2-year-old ginseng was similar in the fresh (1.682–2.055) and aged (1.372–2.570) soils, whereas the BAF for the 3-year-old ginseng in the aged soil (1.087–1.137) was lower than that in the fresh soil (1.771–2.387). The treatment with 0.3 wt% GBC extended the DT50 of endosulfan in soil; however, this could successfully suppress endosulfan uptake, and reduced the BAFs by 66.5–67.7% in the freshly contaminated soil and 32.3–41.4% in the aged soil. Thus, this adsorbent treatment could be an effective, financially viable, and sustainable option to protect human health by reducing plant uptake of endosulfan from contaminated soils.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) can provide crucial information into the bioaccumulation and biomagnification of POPs in marine mammals. Muscle tissue samples were obtained for detailed PCB congener specific analysis of all 209 PCBs in 11 species of marine mammals stranded across the coast of the UK between 2010 and 2013. At least 145 PCB congeners were found in each individual. The highest concentrations of PCBs were recorded in a killer whale (318 mg/kg lipid) and the highest toxic equivalent in a Risso's dolphin (1687 pg/g TEQ2005 wet). Concentrations of PCBs in the majority of samples exceeded toxic thresholds (9 mg/kg lipid) for marine mammals, highlighting the health risk they face from PCB exposure. Many PCB profiles did not fit typical ‘Aroclor’ signatures, but instead indicated patterns of congeners that are resistant to biotransformation and elimination. However, this study identified a novel PCB signature in a sei whale that has not yet been previously observed in marine mammals. The whale had a PCB profile that included lighter and inadvertent PCB congeners such as PCB 11, suggesting that the main source of exposure was through atmospheric deposition, rather than terrestrial discharges. Seven subsamples were chosen for chiral analysis of PCB 95, 136 and 149. The enantiomer fractions (EFs) of C-PCBs 95 and 149 were non racemic suggesting there may be enantiomer selective metabolism in marine mammals. Although there has been a shift in the literature towards emerging pollutants, this study acts as a stark reminder that PCBs continue to pose a significant risk to wildlife.

According to the World Drugs Report (2019) from the United Nations on Drugs and Crime there were over half a million drug related deaths, 35 million people were treated for drug use disorders across the globe, and it is estimated that more than 270 million people used drugs during 2017. Lab-on-a-Chip (LOC) technology is an increasingly popular choice of detection method for drugs of abuse. We systematically reviewed the published literature available on LOC methods for the detection of drugs of abuse including New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) from January 1999 to March 2021 and identified 45 publications. A total of 28 different drugs of abuse were investigated, with cocaine the most widely studied (58%). The LOC devices were capable of accepting a wide range of biological and non-biological samples. A total of 18 countries have been involved in LOC research into detection of drugs of abuse, with locations generally following local trends in drug use. LOC devices employed a range of detection methods with immunoassays most commonly incorporated (34%). Recommendations are made for expanding the use of real-world samples, improved validation and further analysis of practicality (in terms of providing information on cost, speed of analysis and ease of use). More than a third of all the publications included in this review were published since 2019, representing a recent increase in research using LOC devices for the detection of drugs of abuse. There is currently an extensive range of LOC approaches available offering potential for these devices as cost-effective, rapid and portable detection systems.

Wildlife exploitation has nutritional, medicinal, luxury, sociocultural, and financial significance for human societies. Yet, it also risks undesired outcomes for conservation, animal welfare, and public health. Although it is prohibited in urban markets, the wildlife trade in Peru is poorly monitored, and practiced openly. To identify those species most likely to be affected, we investigated the trade in live wild animals and their derivatives at the Belen Market, and additional smaller open-air markets, which together make Iquitos the largest and most important wildlife trade hubs in the Peruvian Amazon. Specifically, we asked what wild animals or animal products were most profitable, what were they used for, and which wild animals were perceived by vendors to have increased most in rarity. Vendors provided 44 local animal names, from which we inferred an estimated 205 species. Nine per cent (n = 19) of these inferred species are categorised on the IUCN Red List as threatened; 35% (n = 71) are categorised as declining. We found that wild meat/food was the most frequently stated purpose of sale of wildlife, followed by pets, spiritual/belief-based use, traditional medicine, and decorative use. The most commonly cited most profitable wildlife derivatives were ‘lowland paca’, ‘yellow footed tortoise’, and ‘collared peccary’. A significant positive correlation was found between the most profitable species and those that are becoming increasingly rare. Further research focused on the actual impacts on wildlife, the socio-economic importance of this trade, the societal pressures driving consumer demand, and the risks to public health is warranted.

In gliding flight, birds morph their wings and tails to control their flight trajectory and speed. Using high-resolution videogrammetry, we reconstructed accurate and detailed three-dimensional geometries of gliding flights for three raptors (barn owl,Tyto alba; tawny owl,Strix aluco, and goshawk,Accipiter gentilis). Wing shapes were highly repeatable and shoulder actuation was a key component of reconfiguring the overall planform and controlling angle of attack. The three birds shared common spanwise patterns of wing twist, an inverse relationship between twist and peak camber, and held their wings depressed below their shoulder in an anhedral configuration. With increased speed, all three birds tended to reduce camber throughout the wing, and their wings bent in a saddle-shape pattern. A number of morphing features suggest that the coordinated movements of the wing and tail support efficient flight, and that the tail may act to modulate wing camber through indirect aeroelastic control.

Occupational exposure to oil fumes, organophosphates, halogenated flame retardants, and other volatile and semi-volatile contaminants is a concern within the aviation industry. There is no current consensus on the risk attributed to exposure to these chemical classes within the aircraft cabin. Contaminant concentrations rarely exceed conventional air quality guidelines, but concerns have been raised about these guidelines' applicability within the aircraft environment. This systematic review, the largest and most comprehensive completed to date on the subject matter, aims to synthesize the existing research related to chemical and other exposures inside the aircraft cabin to determine the occupational risk that may be attributed said exposure, as well as, determine knowledge gaps in source, pathway, and receptor that may exist. The Science Direct, Scopus, and Web of Science databases were queried with five search terms generating 138 manuscripts that met acceptance criteria and screening.. Several potential areas requiring future examination were identified: Potable water on aircraft should be examined as a potential source of pollutant exposure, as should air conditioning expansion turbines. Historical exposure should also be more fully explored, and non-targeted analysis could provide valuable information to comprehend the aircraft cabin exposome. Occupational risk under typical flight scenarios appears to be limited for most healthy individuals. Contaminants of concern were demonstrated to be extant within the cabin, however the concentrations under normal circumstances do not appear to be individually responsible for the symptomologies that are present in impacted individuals. Questions remain regarding those that are more vulnerable or susceptible to exposure. Additionally, establishing the effects of chronic low dose exposure and exposure to contaminant mixtures has not been satisfied. The risk of acute exposure in mitigable fume events is substantial, and technological solutions or the replacement of compounds of concern for safer alternatives should be a priority.

A model aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) comprising a fluorocarbon surfactant (6:2 FTSaB), hydrocarbon surfactant, solvent, and water was deployed on a heptane fire with the gravimetrically-drained foam solution collected at regular time intervals and analysed for surfactant concentration. Foam drainage behaviour within the model foam system was non-linear for both control (no fire exposure) and fire-exposed tests, as would be expected. However, the concentration of fluorosurfactant within the drainage solution was initially lower, increasing with time. This suggests that the fluorosurfactants are retained within the foam blanket for longer than other constituents of the model foam. This is proposed to result from the unequal probability of rupture in bubbles comprising the foam blanket: as the rate of foam collapse decreases with time, bubbles with lower stability burst until those with a higher persistence and higher surfactant content remain.

This study provides a review of methods used in the determination of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in ginseng and compares the effectiveness of three extraction methods (Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe (QuEChERS), a modified QuEChERS and a Fast Pesticide Extraction (FaPEx)) in the analyses of 20 OCPs in ginseng root samples. For each method, sample mass, solvent volume and sorbent mass were varied to identify the optimum combination to effectively isolate analytes of interest from the complex sample matrix. Extracts were analyzed using the gas chromatography-μ-electron capture detector (GC-μ-ECD), and confirmatory analyses performed by gas chromatography-tandem-mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). Eighteen out of 20 OCPs spiked onto in-house prepared ginseng samples produced acceptable recoveries (51–156%) when extracted using QuEChERS and FaPEx. All 20 analytes, including dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (p, p’- DDD) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (o, p’-DDT), produced acceptable recoveries (51–129%) with the use of a modified QuEChERS method. The applicability of the modified QuEChERS method was demonstrated through the analysis of ginseng samples grown in endosulfan-treated soil. The samples were analyzed by both GC-μ-ECD and GC-MS/MS with no significant difference identified in the results of each analytical method. This study highlights the applicability of the modified QuEChERS method, in combination with GC- μ-ECD, to determine organochlorine pesticides in ginseng. This may be especially useful for laboratories in developing countries and less advanced institutions without access to MS/MS instrumentation.

This review represents a comprehensive analysis on pollutants in elasmobranchs including meta-analysis on the most studied pollutants: mercury, cadmium, PCBs and DDTs, in muscle and liver tissue. Elasmobranchs are particularly vulnerable to pollutant exposure which may pose a risk to the organism as well as humans that consume elasmobranch products. The highest concentrations of pollutants were found in sharks occupying top trophic levels (Carcharhiniformes and Lamniformes). A human health risk assessment identified that children and adults consuming shark once a week are exposed to over three times more mercury than is recommended by the US EPA. This poses a risk to local fishing communities and international consumers of shark-based products, as well as those subject to the widespread mislabelling of elasmobranch products. Wider screening studies are recommended to determine the risk to elasmobranchs from emerging pollutants and more robust studies are recommended to assess the risks to human health.

International wildlife trade is recognised as a major transmission pathway for the movement of pathogenic organisms around the world. The UK is an active consumer of non-native live wild animals and is therefore subject to the risks posed by pathogen pollution from imported wildlife. Here, we characterise a key yet overlooked portion of the UK wildlife import market. We evaluate the trade in live non-CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) wild terrestrial animals entering the UK over a 5-year period using data reported by the Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA). Between 2014 and 2018, over 48 million individual animals, across five taxonomic classes and 24 taxonomic orders, were imported into the UK from 90 countries across nine global regions. The largest volumes of wild animals were imported from North America and Asia, and most of the import records were from Europe and Africa. Excluding Columbiformes (pigeons) and Galliformes (&lsquo, game birds&rsquo, ), amphibians were the most imported taxonomic class (73%), followed by reptiles (17%), mammals (4%), birds (3%), and arachnids (&lt, 1%). The records described herein provide insight into the scope and scale of non-CITES listed wildlife imported in to the UK. We describe the potential for pathogen pollution from these vast and varied wildlife imports and highlight the potential threats they pose to public health. We also draw attention to the lack of detail in the UK wildlife import records, which limits its ability to help prevent and manage introduced infectious diseases. We recommend that improved record keeping and reporting could prove beneficial in this regard.

The presence of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulphonic acid (PFOS) in crops is an important consideration for food safety. The soil organic matter (SOM) content may affect the adsorption potential of PFOA and PFOS in water and soil and their subsequent uptake in crops. To better understand these dynamics, the adsorption and uptake of PFOA and PFOS in lettuce were investigated using granular activated carbon (GAC)-treated soils with varying SOM content. The adsorption potential of GAC was investigated, with maximum adsorption capacities for PFOA and PFOS calculated to be 9.091 mg g−1 and 27.778 mg g−1, respectively. These values decreased to 5.208 mg g−1 and 17.241 mg g−1, respectively, after the addition of 0.04 wt% humic acid. The average plant uptake factor (PUF) in low and high perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl acid (PFAA)-contaminated soils with 4.0 wt% SOM was restricted to 0.353 for PFOA and 0.108 for PFOS. The PUFs were approximately two times lower than those for soil with 2.6 wt% SOM. Addition of 1 wt% GAC to the soil successfully reduced the PUF by up to 99.4%, with values of 0.006 (PFOA) and 0.005 (PFOS) in 2.6 wt% SOM-treated soil and 0.079 (PFOA) and 0.023 (PFOS) in 4.0 wt% SOM-treated soil. Although the PUF in the GAC-treated soil was drastically decreased, the PUF of the soil with 4.0 wt% SOM was at least four times higher than that with 2.6 wt% SOM. Therefore, SOM content is an important consideration in the remediation of PFOA- and PFOS-contaminated farmland soil using carbonaceous adsorbent.

Captive reptiles are routinely identified as reservoirs of pathogenic bacteria and reports of reptile-associated infections relating to some species are well documented (e.g., salmonellosis). Currently, relatively little is known about the epidemiology and bacteria of ball pythons. We carried out a survey of ball python farms in Togo, West Africa to assess the presence of any potentially pathogenic bacterial taxa that have been identified in recent scientific literature relating to this species. The presence of bacteria belonging to the genera Acinetobacter, Bacteroides, Citrobacter, Enterobacter, Lysobacter, Proteus, Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, and Tsukamurella in oral and cloacal samples taken from five individual ball pythons is of potential concern for horizontal transmission given that pathogenic species belonging to these genera have been previously documented. The presence of bacteria belonging to the genera Clostridium, Escherichia, Moraxella, and Stenotrophomonas in the oral and rectal samples taken from five mice used to feed ball pythons suggests that they represent a potential reservoir of infection for wild caught ball pythons and their progeny. Furthermore, possible sources of environmental contamination include other captive amphibians, birds, reptiles and mammals, as well as free ranging birds and small mammals. Additional surveillance of ball pythons in the wild and in captivity at python farms in West Africa will shed light on whether or not this type of commercial activity is increasing pathogen exposure and lowering barriers to transmission. Meanwhile, as a precautionary measure, it is recommended that python farms should immediately establish biosecurity and disease surveillance practices to minimize potential horizontal and vertical bacterial transfer.

The accident occurring at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant (ChNPP) in 1986 remains the most prolific in the history of civil nuclear power generation. In the decades since the incident, remote characterisation technologies have advanced significantly in their capabilities. Current knowledge of 137Cs distribution within the CEZ is provided by extensive ground sampling investigations conducted at the turn of the millennium. Whilst this method has a high degree of accuracy, it does not allow for local-scale variation to be resolved. Furthermore, the physical collection of samples is labour intensive and suffers from inconsistent sampling densities throughout the extent of the surveyed area. Inconsistent data spacing occurs due to time and resource constraints, terrain difficulties and exposure risk from the physical radiation hazard, which all relate to using humans to collect the samples. Airborne monitoring using UASs is a solution to overcoming the drawbacks experienced from ground-based sampling, albeit coming at a loss of absolute measurement accuracy. This method allows for the creation of a consistent network of sampling points at a high resolution, independent from terrain conditions and without exposing the operators to potentially harmful doses of radiation.This work presents a comprehensive UAS radiation mapping investigation aiming to evaluate the 137Cs distribution within the CEZ using two distinct radiation mapping UASs to conduct surveys at different spatial resolutions. The first comprises of a lightweight (8 kg) fixed-wing UAS equipped with a dual detector payload (2 x 32.8 cm3 CsI[Tl] detectors) to map over large areas at a relatively high forward velocity (14 – 18 m s-1) and a medium-low spatial resolution (20 – 60 m pixel-1). A multi-rotor aerial vehicle is preferred for the second system, which was used to monitor smaller areas of interest (highlighted by the fixed-wing survey), at a higher spatial resolution (3 – 10 m pixel-1) and a much lower forward velocity of approximately 3 m s-1. This system was heavier than the fixed-wing variant, weighing approximately 11 kg.In the seven days of active fieldwork in the CEZ, more than 650 km of combined flight distance was covered by the two systems, characterising a total area of approximately 15 km2. Through a series of carefully calibrated processing algorithms, both the 137Cs activity (in kBq m-2) and the dose-rate (µSv hr-1) resulting from 137Cs deposition at one metre above ground level are evaluated. Error propagation through this procedure indicates a base-rate error of 11.5-13.9% in the estimation of 137Cs activity from the air, while the basal error for the dose-rate estimation is lower at approximately 5.5 – 6.2%. Minimum detectable activity (MDA) was calculated as 98.1 ± 0.4 kBq m-2 for the fixed-wing system operating at 40 - 60 m altitude and 33.5 ± 0.9 kBq m-2 for the multi-rotor at 8 - 20 m altitude.

Simple Summary Ball pythons (family Pythonidae) are a relatively small species of snake found in west and central Africa. They are popular across the world as exotic pets, particularly in Europe and North America. Snakes are wild animals (i.e., non-domesticated) and have specific requirements for captive living. If they are housed in unsuitable conditions, it could negatively affect their health and wellbeing. Our study aimed to review the housing provided for this species by breeders and sellers advertising their snakes at exotic pet expositions and on YouTube. We assessed how much water, shelter and floor material were provided, as well as hygiene levels, and how much room the snakes had to move. We based our assessment on guidelines provided by the Royal Society for the Protection of Animals (RSPCA), the world’s first Animal Welfare charity). We found that most of the housing conditions we observed did not meet minimum recommendations. We also found that breeders and sellers did not provide adequate information for new pet owners detailing how to look after their snakes appropriately. We recommend that more research is required to help inform and improve guidelines for keeping snakes in better captive conditions, and that breeders and sellers should provide more guidance for pet owners, to stop Ball pythons kept as exotic pets from suffering. Abstract Ball pythons (family Pythonidae) remain a commonly exploited species, readily available for purchase in North America and Europe. We assessed the housing conditions of more than 5000 Ball pythons across six exotic pet expositions and 113 YouTube videos. We scored provisions for hygiene, mobility, shelter, substrate and water provision, based on the Royal Society for the Protection of Animals (RSPCA) minimum guidelines. We found most entities involved in this commercial enterprise are not providing housing conditions that meet the minimum welfare recommendations for Ball pythons, either publicly or privately. We found that breeders and vendors typically utilised small and highly restrictive enclosures, with dimensions that prevented occupants from extending their bodies to full and unrestricted natural length. Our study also highlights that most vendors are not providing adequate written husbandry guidance to potential consumers, either at exotic pet expositions, on their commercial website, or on associated social media pages. Furthermore, our study also indicates that most potential consumers may themselves be unable to recognise unsuitable housing conditions that do not meet minimum animal welfare standards for Ball pythons. We suggest that more consistent guidance, adherence to agree principles and more potent operating models that are formally incorporated into relevant legislation would greatly aid existing and future efforts to safeguard animal welfare in this regard.

Simple Summary The Ball python is a small species that is commonly kept as an exotic pet across the world. Despite huge numbers of these snakes being kept and traded in the pet industry, there is very little information available about how catching, breeding, transporting and housing them in captivity could impact their welfare. Our study reviewed the published literature for this species and found 88 relevant peer-reviewed scientific papers. Physical health was the predominant focus of research, with numerous studies reporting on disease, injury or clinical treatments. Far fewer papers focused on other aspects of Ball python wellbeing, including behaviour, nutrition, environment or mental condition. We also found that very few studies focused on wellbeing prior to pet ownership, i.e., during the early stages of the trade chain when they are caught from the wild, transported, or bred in captivity. We recommend that more research is needed to assess the impact of the exotic pet trade on this species’ welfare. In particular, research on welfare conditions during capture and transportation of wild Ball pythons, and the potential effects of captive breeding, could help reduce suffering throughout the trade. Abstract Extensive numbers of Ball pythons are caught, bred, traded and subsequently kept in captivity across the world as part of the exotic pet industry. Despite their widespread availability as pets, relatively little is known about the potential welfare challenges affecting them. We reviewed the literature for research focused on the health and welfare of Ball pythons in the international pet trade. From a total of 88 articles returned from the search criteria, our analysis showed that very few actually focused on trade (10%) or animal welfare (17%). Instead, the majority (64%) of articles focused on veterinary science. There was a considerable bias towards physical health, with most studies neglecting the four other domains of animal welfare (behaviour, nutrition, environment and mental health). Furthermore, very few studies considered Ball pythons prior to resulting pet ownership, during wild capture and transportation or captive breeding operations. Our review demonstrates that our current understanding of welfare for Ball pythons traded as exotic pets is limited. We recommend that future research should focus on aspects of the industry that are currently overlooked, including the potential consequences of genetic selection during captive-breeding and the conditions provided for snakes prior to and during international transportation.