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In this paper we describe K2, a comprehensive simulation model of Earth’s radiation belts that includes a wide range of relevant physical processes. Global MHD simulations are combined with guiding-center test-particle methods to model interactions with ultra low-frequency (ULF) waves, substorm injections, convective transport, drift-shell splitting, drift-orbit bifurcations, and magnetopause shadowing, all in self-consistent MHD fields. Simulation of local acceleration and pitch-angle scattering due to cyclotron-scale interactions is incorporated by including stochastic differential equation (SDE) methods in the MHD-particle framework. The SDEs are driven by event-specific bounce-averaged energy and pitch-angle diffusion coefficients. We present simulations of electron phase-space densities during a simplified particle acceleration event based on the 17 March 2013 event observed by the Van Allen Probes, with a focus on demonstrating the capabilities of the K2 model. The relative wave-particle effects of global scale ULF waves and very-low frequency (VLF) whistler-mode chorus waves are compared, and we show that the primary acceleration appears to be from the latter. We also show that the enhancement with both ULF and VLF processes included exceeds that of VLF waves alone, indicating a synergistic combination of energization and transport processes may be important.

Regions of magnetic fields with near-radial, Parker-spiral-like geometry known as quiescent regions have been observed in Parker Solar Probe data. These regions have very low δ B /〈∣ B ∣〉 compared to nonquiescent solar wind at the same heliocentric distances. Quiescent regions are observed to have lower solar wind bulk speeds, lower proton temperatures, and lower proton density. Inside of 15 solar radii ( R _⊙ ) , identified quiescent regions show distinct thermal properties, having higher proton temperature anisotropies and lower parallel plasma betas compared to switchback patches observed at the same heliocentric distances. When placed on ${ \mathcal R }$ -versus- β _∥ _p plots (where ${ \mathcal R }$ is the proton temperature anisotropy), quiescent region solar wind is shown to be more stable to proton cyclotron and firehose instabilities than nonquiescent solar wind at the same heliocentric distances. It is shown that quiescent regions evolve similarly to the surrounding nonquiescent solar wind, but quiescent solar wind begins at a different location in the ${ \mathcal R }$ -versus- β _∥ _p parameter space, suggesting that these regions have separate origins from the more turbulent nonquiescent solar wind. Namely, enhanced temperature anisotropies and enhanced magnetic field strength may be consistent with magnetic field lines that have undergone less magnetic field expansion compared to nonquiescent wind at the same heliocentric distances.

An outstanding gap in our knowledge of the solar wind is the relationship between switchbacks and solar wind turbulence. Switchbacks are large fluctuations, even reversals, of the background magnetic field embedded in the solar wind flow. It has been proposed that switchbacks may form as a product of turbulence and decay via coupling with the turbulent cascade. In this work, we examine how properties of solar wind magnetic field turbulence vary in the presence or absence of switchbacks. Specifically, we use in situ particle and fields measurements from Parker Solar Probe to measure magnetic field turbulent wave power, separately in the inertial and kinetic ranges, as a function of switchback magnetic deflection angle. We demonstrate that the angle between the background magnetic field and the solar wind velocity in the spacecraft frame ( θ _vB ) strongly determines whether Parker Solar Probe samples wave power parallel or perpendicular to the background magnetic field. Further, we show that θ _vB is strongly modulated by the switchback magnetic deflection angle. In this analysis, we demonstrate that switchback deflection angle does not correspond to any significant increase in wave power in either the inertial range or at kinetic scales. This result implies that switchbacks do not strongly couple to the turbulent cascade in the inertial or kinetic ranges via turbulent wave–particle interactions. Therefore, we do not expect switchbacks to contribute significantly to solar wind heating through this type of energy conversion pathway although contributions via other mechanisms, such as magnetic reconnection, may still be significant.

This work reports a novel plasma wave observation in the near-Sun solar wind: frequency-dispersed ion acoustic waves. Similar waves have previously been reported in association with interplanetary shocks or planetary bow shocks, but the waves reported here occur throughout the solar wind sunward of ∼60 solar radii, far from any identified shocks. The waves reported here vary their central frequency by factors of 3–10 over tens of milliseconds, with frequencies that move up or down in time. Using a semiautomated identification algorithm, thousands of wave instances are recorded during each near-Sun orbit of the Parker Solar Probe spacecraft. Wave statistical properties are determined and used to estimate their plasma frame frequency and the energies of protons most likely to be resonant with these waves. Proton velocity distribution functions are explored for one wave interval, and proton enhancements that may be consistent with proton beams are observed. A conclusion from this analysis is that properties of the observed frequency-dispersed ion acoustic waves are consistent with driving by cold, impulsively accelerated proton beams near the ambient proton thermal speed. Based on the large number of observed waves and their properties, it is likely that the impulsive proton beam acceleration mechanism generating these waves is active throughout the inner heliosphere. This may have implications for the acceleration of the solar wind.

Grain–grain collisions shape the three-dimensional size and velocity distribution of the inner Zodiacal Cloud and the impact rates of dust on inner planets, yet they remain the least understood sink of zodiacal dust grains. For the first time, we combine the collisional grooming method combined with a dynamical meteoroid model of Jupiter-family comets (JFCs) that covers 4 orders of magnitude in particle diameter to investigate the consequences of grain–grain collisions in the inner Zodiacal Cloud. We compare this model to a suite of observational constraints from meteor radars, the Infrared Astronomical Satellite, mass fluxes at Earth, and inner solar probes, and use it to derive the population and collisional strength parameters for the JFC dust cloud. We derive a critical specific energy of ${Q}_{D}^{* }=5\times {10}^{5}\pm 4\times {10}^{5}\,{R}_{\mathrm{met}}^{-0.24}$ J kg ^−1 for particles from JFC particles, making them 2–3 orders of magnitude more resistant to collisions than previously assumed. We find that the differential power-law size index −4.2 ± 0.1 for particles generated by JFCs provides a good match to observed data. Our model provides a good match to the mass-production rates derived from the Parker Solar Probe observations and their scaling with the heliocentric distance. The higher resistance to collisions of dust particles might have strong implications to models of collisions in solar and exosolar dust clouds. The migration via Poynting–Robertson drag might be more important for denser clouds, the mass-production rates of astrophysical debris disks might be overestimated, and the mass of the source populations might be underestimated. Our models and code are freely available online.

Abstract NASA's Van Allen Probes observed significant, long‐lived fluxes of inner belt electrons up to ∼1 MeV after geomagnetic storms in March and June 2015. Reanalysis of Magnetic Electron Ion Spectrometer (MagEIS) data with improved background correction showed a clearer picture of the relativistic electron population that persisted through 2016 and into 2017 above the Fennell et al. (2015, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014gl062874) limit. The intensity and duration of these enhancements allow estimation of decay timescales for comparison with simulated decay rates and theoretical lifetimes. We compare decay timescales from these data and DREAM3D simulations based on them using geomagnetic activity‐dependent pitch angle diffusion coefficients derived from plasmapause‐indexed wave data (Malaspina et al., 2016, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016gl069982, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018gl078564) and phase space densities derived from MagEIS observations. Simulated decay rates match observed decay rates more closely than the theoretical lifetime due to significantly nonequilibrium pitch angle distributions in simulation and data. We conclude that nonequilibrium effects, rather than a missing diffusion or loss process, account for observed short decay rates.

Abstract Plasma convection in the Earth’s magnetosphere from the distant magnetotail to the inner magnetosphere occurs largely in the form of mesoscale flows, i.e., discrete enhancements in the plasma flow with sharp dipolarizations of magnetic field. Recent spacecraft observations suggest that the dipolarization flows are associated with a wide range of kinetic processes such as kinetic Alfvén waves, whistler-mode waves, and nonlinear time-domain structures. In this paper we explore how mesoscale dipolarization flows produce suprathermal electron instabilities, thus providing free energy for the generation of the observed kinetic waves and structures. We employ three-dimensional test-particle simulations of electron dynamics one-way coupled to a global magnetospheric model. The simulations show rapid growth of interchanging regions of parallel and perpendicular electron temperature anisotropies distributed along the magnetic terrain formed around the dipolarization flows. Unencumbered in test-particle simulations, a rapid growth of velocity-space anisotropies in the collisionless magnetotail plasma is expected to be curbed by the generation of plasma waves. The results are compared with in situ observations of an isolated dipolarization flow at one of the Magnetospheric Multiscale Mission spacecraft. The observations show strong wave activity alternating between broad-band wave activity and whistler waves. With estimated spatial extent being similar to the characteristic size of the temperature anisotropy patches in our test-particle simulations, the observed bursts of the wave activity are likely to be produced by the parallel and perpendicular electron energy anisotropies driven by the dipolarization flow, as suggested by our modeling results.

The trace magnetic power spectrum in the solar wind is known to be characterized by a double power law at scales much larger than the proton gyro-radius, with flatter spectral exponents close to −1 found at the lower frequencies below an inertial range with indices closer to [−1.5, −1.67]. The origin of the 1/ f range is still under debate. In this study, we selected 109 magnetically incompressible solar wind intervals ( δ ∣ B ∣/∣ B ∣ ≪ 1) from Parker Solar Probe encounters 1–13 that display such double power laws, with the aim of understanding the statistics and radial evolution of the low-frequency power spectral exponents from Alfvén point up to 0.3 au. New observations from closer to the Sun show that in the low-frequency range solar wind, turbulence can display spectra much shallower than 1/ f , evolving asymptotically to 1/ f as advection time increases, indicating a dynamic origin for the 1/ f range formation. We discuss the implications of this result on the Matteini et al. conjecture for the 1/ f origin as well as example spectra displaying a triple power law consistent with the model proposed by Chandran et al., supporting the dynamic role of parametric decay in the young solar wind. Our results provide new constraints on the origin of the 1/ f spectrum and further show the possibility of the coexistence of multiple formation mechanisms.

Parker Solar Probe and Solar Orbiter data are used to investigate the radial evolution of magnetic turbulence between 0.06 ≲ R ≲ 1 au. The spectrum is studied as a function of scale, normalized to the ion inertial scale d _i . In the vicinity of the Sun, the inertial range is limited to a narrow range of scales and exhibits a power-law exponent of, α _B = −3/2, independent of plasma parameters. The inertial range grows with distance, progressively extending to larger spatial scales, while steepening toward a α _B = −5/3 scaling. It is observed that spectra for intervals with large magnetic energy excesses and low Alfvénic content steepen significantly with distance, in contrast to highly Alfvénic intervals that retain their near-Sun scaling. The occurrence of steeper spectra in slower wind streams may be attributed to the observed positive correlation between solar wind speed and Alfvénicity.

The lower thermosphere-ionosphere (LTI) is a key transition region between Earth’s atmosphere and space. Interactions between ions and neutrals maximize within the LTI and in particular at altitudes from 100 to 200 km, which is the least visited region of the near-Earth environment. The lack of in situ co-temporal and co-spatial measurements of all relevant parameters and their elusiveness to most remote-sensing methods means that the complex interactions between its neutral and charged constituents remain poorly characterized to this date. This lack of measurements, together with the ambiguity in the quantification of key processes in the 100–200 km altitude range affect current modeling efforts to expand atmospheric models upward to include the LTI and limit current space weather prediction capabilities. We present focused questions in the LTI that are related to the complex interactions between its neutral and charged constituents. These questions concern core physical processes that govern the energetics, dynamics, and chemistry of the LTI and need to be addressed as fundamental and long-standing questions in this critically unexplored boundary region. We also outline the range of in situ measurements that are needed to unambiguously quantify key LTI processes within this region, and present elements of an in situ concept based on past proposed mission concepts.

Mesoscale dynamics are a fundamental process in space physics, but fall within an observational gap of current and planned missions. Particularly in the solar wind, measurements at the mesoscales (100s RE to a few degrees heliographic longitude at 1 au) are crucial for understanding the connection between the corona and an observer anywhere within the heliosphere. Mesoscale dynamics may also be key to revealing the currently unresolved physics regulating particle acceleration and transport, magnetic field topology, and the causes of variability in the composition and acceleration of solar wind plasma. Studies using single-point observations do not allow for investigations into mesoscale solar wind dynamics and plasma variability, nor do they allow for the exploration of the sub-structuring of large-scale solar wind structures like coronal mass ejections (CMEs), co-rotating/stream interaction regions (CIR/SIRs), and the heliospheric plasma sheet. To address this fundamental gap in our knowledge of the heliosphere at these scales, the Interplanetary Mesoscale Observatory (InterMeso) concept employs a multi-point approach using four identical spacecraft in Earth-trailing orbits near 1 au. Varying drift speeds of the InterMeso spacecraft enable the mission to span a range of mesoscale separations in the solar wind, achieving significant and innovative science return. Simultaneous, longitudinally-separated measurements of structures co-rotating over the spacecraft also allow for disambiguation of spatiotemporal variability, tracking of the evolution of solar wind structures, and determination of how the transport of energetic particles is impacted by these variabilities.

We present a random forests machine learning model for prediction of plasmaspheric hiss spectral classes from the Van Allen Probes dataset. The random forests model provides accurate prediction of plasmaspheric hiss spectral classes obtained by the self organizing map (SOM) unsupervised machine learning classification technique. The high predictive skill of the random forests model is largely determined by the distinct and different locations of a given spectral class (“no hiss”, “regular hiss”, and “low-frequency hiss”) in (MLAT, MLT, L) coordinate space, which are the main predictors of the simplest and most accurate base model. Adding to such a base model any other single predictor among different magnetospheric, geomagnetic, and solar wind conditions provides only minor and similarly incremental improvements in predictive skill, which is comparable to the one obtained when including all possible predictors, and thus confirming major role of spatial location for accurate prediction.

We analyze a merged Parker Solar Probe (PSP) and Solar Orbiter (SO) data set covering heliocentric distances 13 R _⊙ ≲ R ≲ 220 R _⊙ to investigate the radial evolution of power and spectral index anisotropy in the wavevector space of solar wind turbulence. Our results show that anisotropic signatures of turbulence display a distinct radial evolution when fast, V _sw ≥ 400 km s ^−1 , and slow, V _sw ≤ 400 km s ^−1 , wind streams are considered. The anisotropic properties of slow wind in Earth orbit are consistent with a “critically balanced” cascade, but both spectral index anisotropy and power anisotropy diminish with decreasing heliographic distance. Fast streams are observed to roughly retain their near-Sun anisotropic properties, with the observed spectral index and power anisotropies being more consistent with a “dynamically aligned” type of cascade, though the lack of extended fast wind intervals makes it difficult to accurately measure the anisotropic scaling. A high-resolution analysis during the first perihelion of PSP confirms the presence of two subranges within the inertial range, which may be associated with the transition from weak to strong turbulence. The transition occurs at κ d _i ≈ 6 × 10 ^−2 and signifies a shift from −5/3 to −2 and from −3/2 to −1.57 scaling in parallel and perpendicular spectra, respectively. Our results provide strong observational constraints for anisotropic theories of MHD turbulence in the solar wind.

A database of in situ dust impact detections made by the Parker Solar Probe spacecraft is created to facilitate studies of interplanetary dust dynamics in the inner heliosphere. A standardized dust detection methodology is established and tested for validity. Individual impact detections are included in the database, and are used to derive dust impact rates. Impact rates are corrected for effects related to high-amplitude plasma waves and undercounting due to finite detection window duration. These corrections suggest that: (i) most dust impacts on Parker Solar Probe are consistent with a random process; and (ii) the true dust impact rate may be ∼50% greater than the impact rate determined using uncorrected data for certain portions of the orbit, especially near perihelion.