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The electron transport chain (ETC) is a well-studied and highly conserved metabolic pathway that produces ATP through generation of a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane coupled to oxidative phosphorylation. ETC mutations are associated with a wide array of human disease conditions and to aging-related phenotypes in a number of different organisms. In this study, we sought to better understand the role of the ETC in aging using a yeast model. A panel of ETC mutant strains that fail to survive starvation was used to isolate suppressor mutants that survive. These suppressors tend to fall into major nutrient sensing and signaling pathways, suggesting that the ETC is involved in proper starvation signaling to these pathways in yeast. These suppressors also partially restore ETC-associated gene expression and pH homeostasis defects, though it remains unclear whether these phenotypes directly cause the suppression or are simply effects. This work further highlights the complex cellular network connections between metabolic pathways and signaling events in the cell and their potential roles in aging and age-related diseases.

Replicative senescence (RS) as a model has become the central focus of research into cellular aging in vitro. Despite decades of study, this process through which cells cease dividing is not fully understood in culture, and even much less so in vivo during development and with aging. Here, we revisit Hayflick’s original observation of RS in WI-38 human fetal lung fibroblasts equipped with a battery of high dimensional modern techniques and analytical methods to deeply profile the process of RS across each aspect of the central dogma and beyond. We applied and integrated RNA-seq, proteomics, metabolomics, and ATAC-seq to a high resolution RS time course. We found that the transcriptional changes that underlie RS manifest early, gradually increase, and correspond to a concomitant global increase in accessibility in nucleolar and lamin associated domains. During RS WI-38 fibroblast gene expression patterns acquire a striking resemblance to those of myofibroblasts in a process similar to the epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT). This observation is supported at the transcriptional, proteomic, and metabolomic levels of cellular biology. In addition, we provide evidence suggesting that this conversion is regulated by the transcription factors YAP1/TEAD1 and the signaling molecule TGF-β2.

Skeletal muscle experiences a decline in lean mass and regenerative potential with age, in part due to intrinsic changes in progenitor cells. However, it remains unclear if age-related changes in progenitors persist across a differentiation trajectory or if new age-related changes manifest in differentiated cells. To investigate this possibility, we performed single cell RNA-seq on muscle mononuclear cells from young and aged mice and profiled muscle stem cells (MuSCs) and fibro/adipose progenitors (FAPs) after differentiation. Differentiation increased the magnitude of age-related change in MuSCs and FAPs, but also masked a subset of age-related changes present in progenitors. Using a dynamical systems approach and RNA velocity, we found that aged MuSCs follow the same differentiation trajectory as young cells, but stall in differentiation near a commitment decision. Our results suggest that age-related changes are plastic across differentiation trajectories and that fate commitment decisions are delayed in aged myogenic cells.

Summary Skeletal muscle experiences a decline in lean mass and regenerative potential with age, in part due to intrinsic changes in progenitor cells. However, it remains unclear how age-related changes in progenitors manifest across a differentiation trajectory. Here, we perform single-cell RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) on muscle mononuclear cells from young and aged mice and profile muscle stem cells (MuSCs) and fibro-adipose progenitors (FAPs) after differentiation. Differentiation increases the magnitude of age-related change in MuSCs and FAPs, but it also masks a subset of age-related changes present in progenitors. Using a dynamical systems approach and RNA velocity, we find that aged MuSCs follow the same differentiation trajectory as young cells but stall in differentiation near a commitment decision. Our results suggest that differentiation reveals latent features of aging and that fate commitment decisions are delayed in aged myogenic cells in vitro.

We present IDEA (the Induction Dynamics gene Expression Atlas), a dataset constructed by independently inducing hundreds of transcription factors (TFs) and measuring timecourses of the resulting gene expression responses in budding yeast. Each experiment captures a regulatory cascade connecting a single induced regulator to the genes it causally regulates. We discuss the regulatory cascade of a single TF, Aft1, in detail; however, IDEA contains > 200 TF induction experiments with 20 million individual observations and 100,000 signal‐containing dynamic responses. As an application of IDEA, we integrate all timecourses into a whole‐cell transcriptional model, which is used to predict and validate multiple new and underappreciated transcriptional regulators. We also find that the magnitudes of coefficients in this model are predictive of genetic interaction profile similarities. In addition to being a resource for exploring regulatory connectivity between TFs and their target genes, our modeling approach shows that combining rapid perturbations of individual genes with genome‐scale time‐series measurements is an effective strategy for elucidating gene regulatory networks., A transcriptional induction system is used to conditionally express hundreds of transcription factors in yeast. The resulting time‐course transcriptomics data are used to train parametric models and predict regulatory connections between genes.

The fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe lacks a diverse toolkit of inducible promoters for experimental manipulation. Available inducible promoters suffer from slow induction kinetics, limited control of expression levels and/or a requirement for defined growth medium. In particular, no S. pombe inducible promoter systems exhibit a linear dose-response, which would allow expression to be tuned to specific levels. We have adapted a fast, orthogonal promoter system with a large dynamic range and a linear dose response, based on β-estradiol-regulated function of the human oestrogen receptor, for use in S. pombe. We show that this promoter system, termed Z3 EV, turns on quickly, can reach a maximal induction of 20-fold, and exhibits a linear dose response over its entire induction range, with few off-target effects. We demonstrate the utility of this system by regulating the mitotic inhibitor Wee1 to create a strain in which cell size is regulated by β-estradiol concentration. This promoter system will be of great utility for experimentally regulating gene expression in fission yeast. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) measurements of gene expression enable an unprecedented high-resolution view into cellular state. However, current methods often result in two or more cells that share the same cell-identifying barcode; these "doublets" violate the fundamental premise of single-cell technology and can lead to incorrect inferences. Here, we describe Solo, a semi-supervised deep learning approach that identifies doublets with greater accuracy than existing methods. Solo embeds cells unsupervised using a variational autoencoder and then appends a feed-forward neural network layer to the encoder to form a supervised classifier. We train this classifier to distinguish simulated doublets from the observed data. Solo can be applied in combination with experimental doublet detection methods to further purify scRNA-seq data to true single cells. It is freely available from https://github.com/calico/solo. A record of this paper's transparent peer review process is included in the Supplemental Information.

Single cell RNA-seq (scRNA-seq) measurements of gene expression enable an unprecedented high-resolution view into cellular state. However, current methods often result in two or more cells that share the same cell-identifying barcode; these “doublets” violate the fundamental premise of single cell technology and can lead to incorrect inferences. Here, we describe Solo, a semi-supervised deep learning approach that identifies doublets with greater accuracy than existing methods. Solo can be applied in combination with experimental doublet detection methods to further purify scRNA-seq data to true single cells beyond any previous approach.

BackgroundAging is a pleiotropic process affecting many aspects of organismal and cellular physiology. Mammalian organisms are composed of a constellation of distinct cell type and state identities residing within different tissue environments. Due to technological limitations, the study of aging has traditionally focused on changes within individual cell types, or the aggregate changes across cell types within a tissue. The influence of cell identity and tissue environment on the trajectory of aging therefore remains unclear.ResultsHere, we perform single cell RNA-seq on >50,000 individual cells across three tissues in young and aged mice. These molecular profiles allow for comparison of aging phenotypes across cell types and tissue environments. We find transcriptional features of aging common across many cell types, as well as features of aging unique to each type. Leveraging matrix factorization and optimal transport methods, we compute a trajectory and magnitude of aging for each cell type. We find that cell type exerts a larger influence on these measures than tissue environment.ConclusionIn this study, we use single cell RNA-seq to dissect the influence of cell identity and tissue environment on the aging process. Single cell analysis reveals that cell identities age in unique ways, with some common features of aging shared across identities. We find that both cell identities and tissue environments exert influence on the trajectory and magnitude of aging, with cell identity influence predominating. These results suggest that aging manifests with unique directionality and magnitude across the diverse cell identities in mammals.

We present an approach for inferring genome-wide regulatory causality and demonstrate its application on a yeast dataset constructed by independently inducing hundreds of transcription factors and measuring timecourses of the resulting gene expression responses. We discuss the regulatory cascades in detail for a single transcription factor, Aft1; however, we have 201 TF induction timecourses that include >100,000 signal-containing dynamic responses. From a single TF induction timecourse we can often discriminate the direct from the indirect effects of the induced TF. Across our entire dataset, however, we find that the majority of expression changes are indirectly driven by unknown regulators. By integrating all timecourses into a single whole-cell transcriptional model, potential regulators of each gene can be predicted without incorporating prior information. In doing so, the indirect effects of a TF are understood as a series of direct regulatory predictions that capture how regulation propagates over time to create a causal regulatory network. This approach, which we call CANDID (Causal Attribution Networks Driven by Induction Dynamics), resulted in the prediction of multiple transcriptional regulators that were validated experimentally.

// Whitney S. Henry 1,* , David G. Hendrickson 2,3,* , Francisco Beca 1 , Benjamin Glass 1 , Marianne Lindahl-Allen 4 , Lizhi He 4 , Zhe Ji 4 , Kevin Struhl 4 , Andrew H. Beck 1 , John L. Rinn 2,3 and Alex Toker 1 1 Department of Pathology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA 2 Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA 3 Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA 4 Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA * These authors have contributed equally to this work Correspondence to: Alex Toker, email: // John L. Rinn, email: // Keywords : lncRNA, Src, PI3K, breast cancer, LINC00520 Received : March 29, 2016 Accepted : September 02, 2016 Published : September 10, 2016 Abstract Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been implicated in normal cellular homeostasis as well as pathophysiological conditions, including cancer. Here we performed global gene expression profiling of mammary epithelial cells transformed by oncogenic v-Src , and identified a large subset of uncharacterized lncRNAs potentially involved in breast cancer development. Specifically, our analysis revealed a novel lncRNA, LINC00520 that is upregulated upon ectopic expression of oncogenic v-Src , in a manner that is dependent on the transcription factor STAT3. Similarly, LINC00520 is also increased in mammary epithelial cells transformed by oncogenic PI3K and its expression is decreased upon knockdown of mutant PIK3CA. Additional expression profiling highlight that LINC00520 is elevated in a subset of human breast carcinomas, with preferential enrichment in the basal-like molecular subtype. ShRNA-mediated depletion of LINC00520 results in decreased cell migration and loss of invasive structures in 3D. RNA sequencing analysis uncovers several genes that are differentially expressed upon ectopic expression of LINC00520, a significant subset of which are also induced in v-Src -transformed MCF10A cells. Together, these findings characterize LINC00520 as a lncRNA that is regulated by oncogenic Src, PIK3CA and STAT3, and which may contribute to the molecular etiology of breast cancer.

This chapter describes sequencing-based methods for profiling dynamic changes in DNA accessibility and gene expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Assay for transposase-accessible chromatin with high-throughput sequencing (ATAC-Seq) is a powerful technique for identifying nucleosome-free regions of the genome. Combining ATAC-Seq with RNA Sequencing (RNA-Seq) is a rapid approach for studying the relationship between genome structure and changes in global patterns of gene expression from a single experiment. A laboratory protocol is presented for these methods as well as examples of typical results and visualizations.

Replicative aging of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is an established model system for eukaryotic cellular aging. A limitation in yeast lifespan studies has been the difficulty of separating old cells from young cells in large quantities. We engineered a new platform, the Miniature-chemostat Aging Device (MAD), that enables purification of aged cells at sufficient quantities for genomic and biochemical characterization of aging yeast populations. Using MAD, we measured DNA accessibility and gene expression changes in aging cells. Our data highlight an intimate connection between aging, growth rate, and stress. Stress-independent genes that change with age are highly enriched for targets of the signal recognition particle (SRP). Combining MAD with an improved ATAC-seq method, we find that increasing proteasome activity reduces rDNA instability usually observed in aging cells and, contrary to published findings, provide evidence that global nucleosome occupancy does not change significantly with age.

Replicative aging of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is an established model system for eukaryotic cellular aging. A major limitation in yeast lifespan studies has been the difficulty of separating old cells from young cells in large quantities for in-depth comparative analyses. We engineered a new platform, the Miniature-chemostat Aging Device (MAD), that enables purification of aged cells at sufficient quantities to enable genomic and biochemical characterization of aging yeast populations. Using the MAD platform, we measured DNA accessibility (ATAC-Seq) and gene expression (RNA-Seq) changes in aging cells. Our data highlight an intimate connection between aging, growth rate, and stress, as many (but not all) genes that change with age have altered expression in cells that are subjected to stress. Stress-independent genes that change with age are highly enriched for targets of the signal recognition particle (SRP). By obtaining pure populations of old cells, we find that nucleosome occupancy does not change significantly with age; however, significant age-dependent changes in accessibility at ~12% of genomic loci reflect decreased replication and changing activities of cell cycle and metabolic regulators. Finally, ATAC-seq revealed that upregulating the proteasome by deleting UBR2 reduces rDNA instability usually observed in aging cells, demonstrating a connection between proteasome activity and genomic stability.

Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA) is caused by mutations in the SMN1 gene. Because this gene is ubiquitously expressed, it remains poorly understood why motor neurons (MNs) are one of the most affected cell types. To address this question, we carried out RNA-sequencing studies using fixed, antibody-labeled and purified MNs produced from control and SMA patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). We found SMA-specific changes in MNs, including hyper-activation of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress pathway. Functional studies demonstrated that inhibition of ER stress improves MN survival in vitro even in MNs expressing low SMN. In SMA mice, systemic delivery of an ER stress inhibitor that crosses the blood-brain-barrier led to preservation of spinal cord MNs. Therefore, our study implies that selective activation of ER stress underlies MN death in SMA. Moreover, the approach we have taken would be broadly applicable for studying disease-prone human cells in heterogeneous cultures.

This chapter describes sequencing-based methods for profiling dynamic changes in DNA accessibility and gene expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Assay for transposase-accessible chromatin with high-throughput sequencing (ATAC-Seq) is a powerful technique for identifying nucleosome-free regions of the genome. Combining ATAC-Seq with RNA Sequencing (RNA-Seq) is a rapid approach for studying the relationship between genome structure and changes in global patterns of gene expression from a single experiment. A laboratory protocol is presented for these methods as well as examples of typical results and visualizations.

RNA, including long noncoding RNA (lncRNA), is known to be an abundant and important structural component of the nuclear matrix. However, the molecular identities, functional roles and localization dynamics of lncRNAs that influence nuclear architecture remain poorly understood. Here, we describe one lncRNA, Firre, that interacts with the nuclear-matrix factor hnRNPU through a 156-bp repeating sequence and localizes across an ~5-Mb domain on the X chromosome. We further observed Firre localization across five distinct trans-chromosomal loci, which reside in spatial proximity to the Firre genomic locus on the X chromosome. Both genetic deletion of the Firre locus and knockdown of hnRNPU resulted in loss of colocalization of these trans-chromosomal interacting loci. Thus, our data suggest a model in which lncRNAs such as Firre can interface with and modulate nuclear architecture across chromosomes.

The fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe lacks a diverse toolkit of inducible promoters for experimental manipulation. Available inducible promoters suffer from slow induction kinetics, limited control of expression levels and/or a requirement for defined growth medium. In particular, no S. pombe inducible promoter systems exhibit a linear dose response, which would allow expression to be tuned to specific levels. We have adapted a fast, orthogonal promoter system with a large dynamic range and a linear dose response, based on β-estradiol-regulated function of the human estrogen receptor, for use in S. pombe. We show that this promoter system, termed Z3EV, turns on quickly, can reach a maximal induction of 20 fold, and exhibits a linear dose response over its entire induction range, with few off target effects. We demonstrate the utility of this system by regulating the mitotic inhibitor Wee1 to create a strain in which cell size is regulated by β-estradiol concentration. This promoter system will be of great utility for experimentally regulating gene expression in fission yeast.

The fission yeastSchizosaccharomyces pombelacks a diverse toolkit of inducible promoters for experimental manipulation. Available inducible promoters suffer from slow induction kinetics, limited control of expression levels and/or a requirement for defined growth medium. In particular, noS. pombeinducible promoter systems exhibit a linear dose response, which would allow expression to be tuned to specific levels. We have adapted a fast, orthogonal promoter system with a large dynamic range and a linear dose response, based on β-estradiol-regulated function of the human estrogen receptor, for use inS. pombe. We show that this promoter system, termed Z3EV, turns on quickly, can reach a maximal induction of 20 fold, and exhibits a linear dose response over its entire induction range, with few off target effects. We demonstrate the utility of this system by regulating the mitotic inhibitor Wee1 to create a strain in which cell size is regulated by β-estradiol concentration. This promoter system will be of great utility for experimentally regulating gene expression in fission yeast.

The utility of human pluripotent stem cells is dependent on efficient differentiation protocols that convert these cells into relevant adult cell types. Here we report the robust and efficient differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells into white or brown adipocytes. We found that inducible expression of PPARG2 alone or combined with CEBPB and/or PRDM16 in mesenchymal progenitor cells derived from pluripotent stem cells programmed their development towards a white or brown adipocyte cell fate with efficiencies of 85%-90%. These adipocytes retained their identity independent of transgene expression, could be maintained in culture for several weeks, expressed mature markers and had mature functional properties such as lipid catabolism and insulin-responsiveness. When transplanted into mice, the programmed cells gave rise to ectopic fat pads with the morphological and functional characteristics of white or brown adipose tissue. These results indicate that the cells could be used to faithfully model human disease.

Background Recent evidence suggests that RNA interaction can regulate the activity and localization of chromatin-associated proteins. However, it is unknown if these observations are specialized instances for a few key RNAs and chromatin factors in specific contexts, or a general mechanism underlying the establishment of chromatin state and regulation of gene expression. Results Here, we perform formaldehyde RNA immunoprecipitation (fRIP-Seq) to survey the RNA associated with a panel of 24 chromatin regulators and traditional RNA binding proteins. For each protein that reproducibly bound measurable quantities of bulk RNA (90 % of the panel), we detect enrichment for hundreds to thousands of both noncoding and mRNA transcripts. Conclusion For each protein, we find that the enriched sets of RNAs share distinct biochemical, functional, and chromatin properties. Thus, these data provide evidence for widespread specific and relevant RNA association across diverse classes of chromatin-modifying complexes. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13059-016-0878-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The ρ-value of −1.8 for the oxidation of para-substituted 1-phenylethanols by sodium hypochlorite in acetic acid suggests that ketone is formed directly from alcohol by loss of a hydride. The kinetic isotope effect is 3.0. When the disappearance of oxidant is followed by iodometric titration, 5-nonanol is oxidized about 20 times faster than 1-butylpentyl hypochlorite decomposes. However, when NaCl is added to the alkyl hypochlorite, the reaction rates are about the same.

The prevalence of obesity has led to a surge of interest in understanding the detailed mechanisms underlying adipocyte development. Many protein-coding genes, mRNAs, and microRNAs have been implicated in adipocyte development, but the global expression patterns and functional contributions of long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) during adipogenesis have not been explored. Here we profiled the transcriptome of primary brown and white adipocytes, preadipocytes, and cultured adipocytes and identified 175 lncRNAs that are specifically regulated during adipogenesis. Many lncRNAs are adipose-enriched, strongly induced during adipogenesis, and bound at their promoters by key transcription factors such as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α (CEBPα). RNAi-mediated loss of function screens identified functional lncRNAs with varying impact on adipogenesis. Collectively, we have identified numerous lncRNAs that are functionally required for proper adipogenesis.

Differential analysis of gene and transcript expression using high-throughput RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) is complicated by several sources of measurement variability and poses numerous statistical challenges. We present Cuffdiff 2, an algorithm that estimates expression at transcript-level resolution and controls for variability evident across replicate libraries. Cuffdiff 2 robustly identifies differentially expressed transcripts and genes and reveals differential splicing and promoter-preference changes. We demonstrate the accuracy of our approach through differential analysis of lung fibroblasts in response to loss of the developmental transcription factor HOXA1, which we show is required for lung fibroblast and HeLa cell cycle progression. Loss of HOXA1 results in significant expression level changes in thousands of individual transcripts, along with isoform switching events in key regulators of the cell cycle. Cuffdiff 2 performs robust differential analysis in RNA-seq experiments at transcript resolution, revealing a layer of regulation not readily observable with other high-throughput technologies.

A specific microRNA reduces the synthesis of hundreds of proteins via concordant effects on the abundance and translation of the mRNAs that encode them., MicroRNAs (miRNAs) regulate gene expression posttranscriptionally by interfering with a target mRNA's translation, stability, or both. We sought to dissect the respective contributions of translational inhibition and mRNA decay to microRNA regulation. We identified direct targets of a specific miRNA, miR-124, by virtue of their association with Argonaute proteins, core components of miRNA effector complexes, in response to miR-124 transfection in human tissue culture cells. In parallel, we assessed mRNA levels and obtained translation profiles using a novel global approach to analyze polysomes separated on sucrose gradients. Analysis of translation profiles for ∼8,000 genes in these proliferative human cells revealed that basic features of translation are similar to those previously observed in rapidly growing Saccharomyces cerevisiae. For ∼600 mRNAs specifically recruited to Argonaute proteins by miR-124, we found reductions in both the mRNA abundance and inferred translation rate spanning a large dynamic range. The changes in mRNA levels of these miR-124 targets were larger than the changes in translation, with average decreases of 35% and 12%, respectively. Further, there was no identifiable subgroup of mRNA targets for which the translational response was dominant. Both ribosome occupancy (the fraction of a given gene's transcripts associated with ribosomes) and ribosome density (the average number of ribosomes bound per unit length of coding sequence) were selectively reduced for hundreds of miR-124 targets by the presence of miR-124. Changes in protein abundance inferred from the observed changes in mRNA abundance and translation profiles closely matched changes directly determined by Western analysis for 11 of 12 proteins, suggesting that our assays captured most of miR-124–mediated regulation. These results suggest that miRNAs inhibit translation initiation or stimulate ribosome drop-off preferentially near the start site and are not consistent with inhibition of polypeptide elongation, or nascent polypeptide degradation contributing significantly to miRNA-mediated regulation in proliferating HEK293T cells. The observation of concordant changes in mRNA abundance and translational rate for hundreds of miR-124 targets is consistent with a functional link between these two regulatory outcomes of miRNA targeting, and the well-documented interrelationship between translation and mRNA decay., Author Summary The human genome contains directions to regulate the timing and magnitude of expression of its thousands of genes. MicroRNAs are important regulatory RNAs that tune the expression levels of tens to hundreds of specific genes by pairing to complimentary stretches in the messenger RNAs from these genes, thereby reducing their stability and their translation into protein. Although the importance of microRNAs is appreciated, little is known about the relative contributions of degradation or repression of translation of the cognate mRNAs to the overall effects on protein synthesis, or the links between these two regulatory mechanisms. We devised a simple, economical method to systematically measure mRNA translation profiles, then applied this method, in combination with gene expression analysis, to measure the effects of the human microRNA miR-124 on the abundance and apparent translation rate of its mRNA targets. We found that for the ∼600 mRNA targets of miR-124 that were identified by their association with microRNA effector complexes, around three quarters of the reduction in estimated protein synthesis was explained by changes in mRNA abundance. Although the apparent changes in translation efficiencies of the targeted mRNAs were smaller in magnitude, they were highly correlated with changes in the abundance of those RNAs, suggesting a functional link between microRNA-mediated repression of translation and mRNA decay.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important regulators of stem and progenitor cell functions. We previously reported that miR-142 and miR-150 are upregulated in human breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) as compared to the non-tumorigenic breast cancer cells. In this study, we report that miR-142 efficiently recruits the APC mRNA to an RNA-induced silencing complex, activates the canonical WNT signaling pathway in an APC-suppression dependent manner, and activates the expression of miR-150. Enforced expression of miR-142 or miR-150 in normal mouse mammary stem cells resulted in the regeneration of hyperproliferative mammary glands in vivo. Knockdown of endogenous miR-142 effectively suppressed organoid formation by BCSCs and slowed tumor growth initiated by human BCSCs in vivo. These results suggest that in some tumors, miR-142 regulates the properties of BCSCs at least in part by activating the WNT signaling pathway and miR-150 expression. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01977.001, eLife digest Messenger RNA molecules take the information encoded in a gene's DNA sequence and turn it into instructions for building a protein. However, if certain smaller molecules of RNA—called microRNAs—bind to a messenger RNA molecule, they ‘silence’ it, which prevents the information in the messenger RNA from being translated to make a protein. Despite their small size, microRNAs are very powerful. These molecules are able to simultaneously inhibit the translation of hundreds of messenger RNAs and perform many roles, including controlling cell growth and maintaining populations of stem cells. Furthermore, microRNAs have been linked to different aspects of the growth of cancerous cells. Certain microRNAs appear to suppress tumors by regulating the growth of the stem cells found there, while others appear to be ‘hyperactive’ in cancers—including breast cancer, colon cancer, and blood cancer. In 2009, researchers compared the amount of microRNA in breast cancer stem cells that are highly capable of forming tumors with the amount in other cancer cells within the same tumor. Amongst other differences, two microRNAs (called miR-142 and miR-150) were found to be hyperactive in human breast cancer stem cells. One of them, miR-142, is known to target a gene called APC that inhibits the renewal of normal stem cells. Mutations in the APC gene have been linked to colon cancer, and scientists have suggested that the mutations inactivate APC in cancer cells to promote unregulated cell growth. Breast tumors rarely have mutations in the APC gene, but Isobe et al. wondered whether microRNAs that target this gene might also promote the growth of these tumor cells. Isobe et al.—including several of the researchers involved in the 2009 work—show that miR-142 does target the APC gene in human breast cancer stem cells, and silences it. With the gene silenced, a cancer-promoting pathway turns on and more miR-150 is made. Increasing the amount of either miR-142 or miR-150 causes excessive cell growth in breast tissue and can form abnormal breast tissue in mice. Reducing the amount of miR-142 in human breast cancer stem cells slows the growth of breast tumors. Although they only make up a small population of human breast cancer cells, focusing on breast cancer stem cells could uncover the cancer-promoting pathways that are activated in human breast cancers. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01977.002

microRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that regulate mRNA stability and translation through the action of the RNAi-induced silencing complex (RISC). Our current understanding of miRNA function is inferred largely from studies of the effects of miRNAs on steady-state mRNA levels and from seed match conservation and context in putative targets. Here we have taken a more direct approach to these issues by comprehensively assessing the miRNAs and mRNAs that are physically associated with Argonaute 2 (Ago2), which is a core RISC component. We transfected HEK293T cells with epitope-tagged Ago2, immunopurified Ago2 together with any associated miRNAs and mRNAs, and quantitatively determined the levels of these RNAs by microarray analyses. We found that Ago2 immunopurified samples contained a representative repertoire of the cell's miRNAs and a select subset of the cell's total mRNAs. Transfection of the miRNAs miR-1 and miR-124 caused significant changes in the association of scores of mRNAs with Ago2. The mRNAs whose association with Ago2 increased upon miRNA expression were much more likely to contain specific miRNA seed matches and to have their overall mRNA levels decrease in response to the miRNA transfection than expected by chance. Hundreds of mRNAs were recruited to Ago2 by each miRNA via seed sequences in 3'-untranslated regions and coding sequences and a few mRNAs appear to be targeted via seed sequences in 5'-untranslated regions. Microarray analysis of Ago2 immunopurified samples provides a simple, direct method for experimentally identifying the targets of miRNAs and for elucidating roles of miRNAs in cellular regulation.

Background Transposable elements (TEs) have significantly influenced the evolution of transcriptional regulatory networks in the human genome. Post-transcriptional regulation of human genes by TE-derived sequences has been observed in specific contexts, but has yet to be systematically and comprehensively investigated. Here, we study a collection of 75 CLIP-Seq experiments mapping the RNA binding sites for a diverse set of 51 human proteins to explore the role of TEs in post-transcriptional regulation of human mRNAs and lncRNAs via RNA-protein interactions. Results We detect widespread interactions between RNA binding proteins (RBPs) and many families of TE-derived sequence in the CLIP-Seq data. Further, alignment coverage peaks on specific positions of the TE consensus sequences, illuminating a diversity of TE-specific RBP binding motifs. Evidence of binding and conservation of these motifs in the nonrepetitive transcriptome suggests that TEs have generally appropriated existing sequence preferences of the RBPs. Depletion assays for numerous RBPs show that TE-derived binding sites affect transcript abundance and splicing similarly to nonrepetitive sites. However, in a few cases the effect of RBP binding depends on the specific TE family bound; for example, the ubiquitously expressed RBP HuR confers transcript stability unless bound to an Alu element. Conclusions Our meta-analysis suggests a widespread role for TEs in shaping RNA-protein regulatory networks in the human genome. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13059-014-0537-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.