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Measurements of the optical turbulence profile are critical for selecting a potential new solar observational site or for characterizing an existing solar observatory. To measure the turbulence distribution to a moderate altitude above an existing observatory, current techniques use a large facility telescope with an aperture size larger than 1.0 m. This limits their application, especially in surveys to find a new potential site where no large facility telescope is available and where a portable measurement device is needed for such measurements. To address the above issues, we propose a new technique, termed the Advanced Multiple Aperture Seeing Profiler (A-MASP), which uses solar granulation to measure the daytime optical turbulence profile. The A-MASP is a portable system and thus can fully address the fundamental limitation of current optical turbulence profile measurement techniques. The A-MASP consists of two small telescopes, each with an aperture of the order of 100 mm, which can measure the turbulence profile to an altitude up to 20 km. Here, we present our A-MASP development work and its initial on-site measurements at the Big Bear Solar Observatory. In a proof-of-concept experiment, it was successfully demonstrated that the A-MASP can reliably measure the turbulence profile up to 12 km with a vector separation of 0.7 m between the two telescopes. The A-MASP could be used for future surveys to find potentially good observational sites.

Gadolinium is a metal used in contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging. Although gadolinium is widely used in clinical settings, many concerns regarding its toxicity and bioaccumulation after gadolinium-based contrast agent administration have been raised and published over the last decade. To date, most toxicological studies have focused on identifying acute effects following gadolinium exposure, rather than investigating associated toxicity mechanisms. In this study, we employ functional toxicogenomics to assess mechanistic interactions of gadolinium with

Historically, identifying carcinogens has relied primarily on tumor studies in rodents, which require enormous resources in both money and time. In silico models have been developed for predicting rodent carcinogens but have not yet found general regulatory acceptance, in part due to the lack of a generally accepted protocol for performing such an assessment as well as limitations in predictive performance and scope. There remains a need for additional, improved in silico carcinogenicity models, especially ones that are more human-relevant, for use in research and regulatory decision-making. As part of an international effort to develop in silico toxicological protocols, a consortium of toxicologists, computational scientists, and regulatory scientists across several industries and governmental agencies evaluated the extent to which in silico models exist for each of the recently defined 10 key characteristics (KCs) of carcinogens. This position paper summarizes the current status of in silico tools for the assessment of each KC and identifies the data gaps that need to be addressed before a comprehensive in silico carcinogenicity protocol can be developed for regulatory use.

Europium is a lanthanide metal that is highly valued in optoelectronics. Even though europium is used in many commercial products, its toxicological profile has only been partially characterized, with most studies focusing on identifying lethal doses in different systems or bioaccumulation in vivo. This paper describes a genome-wide toxicogenomic study of europium in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which shares many biological functions with humans. By using a multidimensional approach and functional and network analyses, we have identified a group of genes and proteins associated with the yeast responses to ameliorate metal toxicity, which include metal discharge paths through vesicle-mediated transport, paths to regulate biologically relevant cations, and processes to reduce metal-induced stress. Furthermore, the analyses indicated that europium promotes yeast toxicity by disrupting the function of chaperones and cochaperones, which have metal-binding sites. Several of the genes and proteins highlighted in our study have human orthologues, suggesting they may participate in europium-induced toxicity in humans. By identifying the endogenous targets of europium as well as the already existing paths that can decrease its toxicity, we can determine specific genes and proteins that may help to develop future therapeutic strategies.

Distinguishing sources of groundwater contamination in regions with multiple potential sources can be challenging using conventional markers. In this study, isotopes of nitrate (δ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3) were examined in conjunction with other hydrochemical parameters to better distinguish sources of groundwater contamination, where intensive agriculture occurs adjacent to a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). High nitrate concentrations were found in groundwater both within the WWTP site and surrounding market garden farms (maximum of 99 mg/L and 78 mg/L nitrate as N, respectively). Ranges and median δ15NNO3 values showed clear differences between sample groups. In groundwater close to the WWTP, δ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3 values ranged from 10.4 to 41.2‰ and −0.5to 21.3‰, respectively, indicating predominantly sewage-sourced nitrate, while samples within market gardens showed evidence of mixed fertilizer (manure and synthetic) sourced nitrate, with δ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3 values between 7.2 and 29.8‰ and 0.4 to 15.1‰, respectively. Nitrate interpreted to be derived from the WWTP was also typically associated with elevated ammonia as N (median concentration of 17 mg/L) and SO4 (median concentration of 350 mg/L). These distinctive signatures allowed for clearer delineation of the extent and overlap between different contaminant plumes than otherwise possible. Geochemical conditions in groundwater surrounding the WWTP appear to promote denitrification, evident through enrichment in δ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3 and reduced nitrate concentrations between sampling rounds (locally). However, isotopic signatures in market garden areas showed no evidence of denitrification, and groundwater exhibited conditions likely to preserve nitrate (e.g. dissolved oxygen levels >2 mg/L). There is limited evidence of nitrate contamination currently impacting a nearby groundwater dependent ecosystem (Tootgarook Swamp), located down-gradient from the WWTP. This research demonstrates that a combination of hydrochemical and isotope data can help resolve sources of groundwater contamination and characterise nutrient degradation behaviour in settings with multiple inputs.

Lanthanides are a series of critical elements widely used in multiple industries, such as optoelectronics and healthcare. Although initially considered to be of low toxicity, concerns have emerged during the last few decades over their impact on human health. The toxicological profile of these metals, however, has been incompletely characterized, with most studies to date solely focusing on one or two elements within the group. In the current study, we assessed potential toxicity mechanisms in the lanthanide series using a functional toxicogenomics approach in baker’s yeast, which shares many cellular pathways and functions with humans. We screened the homozygous deletion pool of 4,291 Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains with the lanthanides and identified both common and unique functional effects of these metals. Three very different trends were observed within the lanthanide series, where deletions of certain proteins on membranes and organelles had no effect on the cellular response to early lanthanides while inducing yeast sensitivity and resistance to middle and late lanthanides, respectively. Vesicle-mediated transport (primarily endocytosis) was highlighted by both gene ontology and pathway enrichment analyses as one of the main functions disturbed by the majority of the metals. Protein–protein network analysis indicated that yeast response to lanthanides relied on proteins that participate in regulatory paths used for calcium (and other biologically relevant cations), and lanthanide toxicity included disruption of biosynthetic pathways by enzyme inhibition. Last, multiple genes and proteins identified in the network analysis have human orthologs, suggesting that those may also be targeted by lanthanides in humans.

Single crystal X-ray diffraction is a technique that measures interatomic distances with atomic resolution. Utilizing this technique for metal complexes featuring lanthanide and actinide elements is complicated by the scarcity and radioactivity of many of the metals of the f-block, as sub-milligram samples are difficult to crystallize for small molecule X-ray diffraction experiments. In this chapter, we present a protocol developed in our group that circumvents these challenges by exploiting macromolecular crystallography, wherein a protein with a large and well-characterized binding calyx is used as a scaffold to crystallize small-molecule metal complexes. Highlighting several examples, we identify the structural and chemical information that can be acquired by this method, and delineate the benefits of directing crystal growth with proteins, such as decreasing the amount of metal used to the sub-microgram scale. Moreover, since protein recognition depends on the nature of the metal-chelator bonds, subtle effects in the lanthanide and actinide coordination chemistry, such as metal-ligand covalency, can be qualitatively assessed.

The assessment of skin sensitization has evolved over the past few years to include in vitro assessments of key events along the adverse outcome pathway and opportunistically capitalize on the strengths of in silico methods to support a weight of evidence assessment without conducting a test in animals. While in silico methods vary greatly in their purpose and format; there is a need to standardize the underlying principles on which such models are developed and to make transparent the implications for the uncertainty in the overall assessment. In this contribution, the relationship between skin sensitization relevant effects, mechanisms, and endpoints are built into a hazard assessment framework. Based on the relevance of the mechanisms and effects as well as the strengths and limitations of the experimental systems used to identify them, rules and principles are defined for deriving skin sensitization in silico assessments. Further, the assignments of reliability and confidence scores that reflect the overall strength of the assessment are discussed. This skin sensitization protocol supports the implementation and acceptance of in silico approaches for the prediction of skin sensitization.

Chapter 17 focuses on the automobile industry as a familiar, large-scale, globalized exemplar of manufacturing industries in general. It begins with the widespread use of cooperative strategies at the corporate level—whether using a corporate brand, building a family of brands that can use common innovation, platforms, and parts, or pursuing specific markets through alliances, the automotive industry offers a variety of cooperative strategies. The chapter then looks specifically at the use of joint production and supply agreements, a practice that is universal in the auto sector and has grown steadily as it has matured. Finally, it addresses market entry alliances to build and sell (and sometimes to design) cars—and perhaps to manage competition—in foreign markets. The chapter also addresses the issue of alliance versus acquisition in manufacturing before closing with a look at changes coming from the rapid growth of emerging markets.

In concluding the book, Chapter 25 argues that cooperation is becoming the preferred strategy for business and public organizations to adopt in the new economy. It is taking on new forms that are adapted to changing market expectations and new technological possibilities in the rapidly evolving business environment. New technologies such as ICT and blockchain are reducing the potential for and value of partner opportunism, making cooperation more efficient and less costly while enabling managers to pinpoint potential partners for ever more focused purposes. Cooperative strategy offers a viable solution for pooling together the required resources to seize the opportunities offered by Industry 4.0, which is driven by AI, the Internet of Things, and Big Data. Looking ahead, the personalization of technologies envisaged in Industry 5.0 will require an increasing number of collaborations between organizations from different sectors, both firms and social/public bodies.

Chapter 5 reviews the traditional forms of strategic alliance and network. It shows that there are many different types, ranging from supplier contracts to equity joint ventures, and all have different levels of interaction and independence. Networks are another well-established form of cooperation; these can embrace several, sometimes many, firms and other partners. This chapter discusses dominated, equal partner, and coordinated networks. This chapter also describes a variety of taxonomies proposed for classifying alliances. It notes that Yoshino and Rangan (1995) and Dussauge and Garrette (1999) have perhaps the most attractive typologies of alliance forms among the many on offer. Yoshino and Rangan categorize alliances into non-traditional contracts, equity alliances, and joint ventures. Dussauge and Garrette identify international expansion joint ventures, vertical partnerships, diversification alliances, complementary alliances, shared supply alliances, and quasi-concentration alliances. The chapter concludes with some suggestions as to which forms may be most appropriate for which situations.

Chapter 14 recognizes that many alliances are established in order to enhance a company’s knowledge or capacity to generate new knowledge through learning. It identifies different forms of learning in and through alliances. Alliance partners’ motives toward learning are extremely significant, and the chapter distinguishes between alliances in which partners seek to learn collaboratively for their mutual benefit from other alliances in which learning becomes competitive and potentially exploitative. Effective organizational learning through alliances requires several conditions to be in place and the presence or otherwise of these conditions gives rise to a range of learning processes identified by research on international joint ventures. The closing sections of this chapter turn to the process whereby alliance learning can be facilitated. They identify the potential barriers to learning in alliances, and how the process might be managed constructively.

Chapter 21 examines ways in which the national context of alliances is relevant to cooperative strategies. It focuses on two salient contextual features. One is national culture. The other is the institutional environment, which particularly refers to governments and interest groups such as NGOs. National context is consequential for alliances in several ways. The context from which international alliance partners originate encourages each of them to internalize a particular set of norms and practices. So, if there is a substantial difference (“distance”) between those contexts, misunderstanding and friction can readily arise between the partners. Additionally, it may be problematic for an alliance partner to build sympathetic and constructive relationships with governmental bodies and interest groups in the host country location of the alliance unit (such as a joint venture), if that location is culturally and institutionally distant from the partner’s domestic environment. The chapter considers “distance” arising from country differences and how it can be highly consequential for the management and ultimate viability of an international strategic alliance.

Chapter 7 addresses the use of cooperative strategies and organizations in the development of global value-adding chains and networks. These global networks comprise not only component manufacture, but also final assembly, marketing, distribution, and even knowledge-based activities such as research and development. These activities are located in many countries and regions, both industrialized and emerging. The chapter notes that transaction cost and resource-based theories and their derivative transaction value perspective offer theoretical support for why cooperative ventures are common in the “outsourcing” that is typical of global production networks. Network concepts help to explain the structuring of global production networks and of the individual transactions that comprise these networks. The chapter also discusses the work of Gereffi and others on global value chains which is particularly informative about cooperative governance types. Modular production models provide a mechanism to structure decentralized networks.

Chapter 9 considers the critical issue of what sort of company would make a good partner. It notes that most companies assess their prospective partners in terms of the complementarity of their assets and skills and the possible synergies that arise as a result of them. Fewer, however, devote sufficient attention to the cultural compatibility between the partners. Yet this factor is often responsible for the breakdown of alliances. The culture web (symbols, power structures, organization structure, controls, rituals and routines, and stories) depicted by Johnson et al. (2017) and the cultural profile (employee orientation, environmental orientation, international orientation, customer orientation, technology orientation, innovation orientation, cost orientation, and quality orientation) proposed by Bronder and Pritzl (1992) are both useful tools for assessing the presence of cultural difference between prospective alliance partners and hence the likelihood of culturally-related problems arising.

Chapter 10 addresses the negotiation of a cooperative agreement, and how to value your partner’s and your own prospective contributions to the joint enterprise. The chapter emphasizes that, whereas in a takeover situation the negotiators are single-mindedly concerned to achieve the best price for their company—the highest or lowest price depending on the side of the negotiating table, this is not the case in an alliance. Unless both partners are concerned that the other has a good deal, the alliance will not prosper over time. Partners need to be satisfied that they have a fair and reliable agreement on the contributions and benefits they attach to an alliance in order for their relationship to develop fruitfully. A so-called win–win situation is sought. The problem of contribution valuation, however, is in reality more an art than a science.

Chapter 1 defines cooperative strategy, and compares it with competitive and corporate strategy. Cooperative strategy can help to improve competitive strategy by enhancing the qualities that afford competitive advantage. It can also strengthen corporate strategy by making the corporate mission more attainable. The chapter notes the growing use of cooperative strategies in various forms. The range is wide and includes collaborations between two or relatively few organizations such as joint ventures and research and development partnerships; multi-partner alliances such as oil-exploration consortia, industry-wide associations, innovation networks, global supply chains, collaborations through information and communications technology platforms; and public–private partnerships. The chapter recognizes the importance of information technology in assisting the management and coordination of alliances and networks, but notes that it cannot substitute for trust-based personal relationships between key actors crucial for successful cooperation. The chapter then describes how the book is organized into parts and chapters.

Chapter 19 examines alliances in the financial services sector, focusing on banks as the major players. It describes how banks have traditionally formed strategic alliances with other banks and established deep networks. As such they have made themselves into the sector’s banking blocks. However, since the financial crisis of 2008 the terrain has changed and banks are facing the need to digitize and adopt modern technology to a greater degree than previously. The chapter considers the impact of digitization leading to cooperation between banks and software companies and the development of new business models based on the efficiencies digitization offers. It also looks at the cooperative relationship of banks with the new area characterized as Fintech and the emergence of new financial tools like cryptocurrencies and blockchain.

Cooperation has become the leading strategy adopted by business and other organizations. It is taking on new forms that are adapted to changing market expectations and technological possibilities in the rapidly evolving business environment. This new edition of Cooperative Strategy provides a comprehensive view of the practical and theoretical literature concerning cooperative strategies, and the alliance and network organizational forms that are the enablers of these strategies. It takes the reader through the stages of developing a cooperative alliance, from choosing a cooperative form and selecting partners, to establishing an alliance and managing the process of cooperation. It examines cooperative strategies in different sectors as well as internationally, and discusses performance criteria and evolution of cooperation over time. With insights from internationally recognized experts on cooperative strategy, this book presents extensive research on the topic while also addressing practical issues of alliance management. Echoing the words of the famous social psychologist Kurt Lewin that “there is nothing so practical as a good theory,” the authors provide a sound understanding of the theory and research on cooperative strategy so as to inform its practice. In this respect, this new edition follows its predecessor as an essential resource for both students and managers alike.

Chapter 18 focuses on the non-financial service sector and the professional service firm in particular. It describes how professional service firms bent on expansion are increasingly developing characteristics similar to manufacturing firms, enabling them to take advantage of economies of scale and scope, thereby commoditizing their products/services. They are also digitizing back offices. As such they are making themselves good candidates for globalization by means of cooperative strategy. The chapter also considers the position of the smaller professional service firm, which it views as having more limited opportunities due to the weakness of its brand name in terms of international recognition. However, if the smaller firm focuses on bespoke products and developing a good unique selling proposition (USP), it too may use cooperative strategy successfully to aid its international expansion. Finally the chapter discusses how the collaborative movement has impacted on three specific service sectors, aviation, tourism, and academia.

Chapter 11 considers the governance and control of alliances. It begins with the aims of alliance governance. It continues by considering the key issue of partner control, including formal and informal ways of exercising control. It discusses different dimensions of control that apply to alliances. These are the extent of control exercised by partners over their alliance, the activities and decisions which they control (focus), the mechanisms by which control is exercised, and the foundations for control. The chapter then discusses different combinations of control and coordination mechanisms which are appropriate for coping with the alliance governance challenges arising from financial, resource, and market risks as well as from the requirement to overcome potential conflicts and to ensure the necessary level of internal coordination. While the chapter focuses on governance in international joint ventures, it also discusses the governance of collaborations and of global value chains.

This chapter examines cooperative strategies in the biopharma sector and then in IT. In the latter case, it focuses primarily on software production. These industries are archetypical of the knowledge-based and high-tech sector in which innovation is a key competitive factor. The increasing use of an open innovation approach makes cooperation, especially through a range of networked links, an appropriate strategy to follow. The chapter examines different types of alliance commonly found in the biopharmaceutical industry, and then continues by indicating the tensions that can arise between partners because of specific differences of interest, issues over intellectual property, and an imperfect cultural fit. It then turns to cooperation within the large and diverse IT sector. The focus is on alliances within the IT industry, as well as collaborations between IT firms and those in other industries, including life sciences. Again, different variants of cooperation are identified.

Chapter 12 focuses on the joint venture (JV) general manager, but also considers the management of collaborations and networks. The success of JVs relies on their general managers taking an active part in handling relations between partners, in addition to managing other external relations and those within the internal organization of the venture unit. Their management of these relationships is therefore of critical importance. The role can be stressful because the presence of two or more partners or parent companies in strategic alliances of any kind can lead to conflict and ambiguity in what is expected of their managers. Non-JV alliances, such as two-party collaborations and multi-party networks, also have their own managerial requirements. The chapter closes by considering the qualities that alliance managers need in the light of the tasks and circumstances they face.

Chapter 20 discusses public–private partnerships (PPPs) between government and major corporations. Generally, in PPPs the government sets the task and agrees the fee, while the private sector does the work and incurs the costs whilst receiving a contractually agreed profit. The project is normally building a major infrastructure facility. This arrangement has been very popular in the UK until recently, as well as in many other countries. In the USA a strong lobby is advocating the increased use of PPPs to update the country’s infrastructure. The chapter notes that the idea of public–private partnership is a good one in principle, but that scandals of excess profits (and sometimes losses) can result from deficiencies in negotiation and implementation. The chapter also considers success criteria for PPPs and concludes that they vary according to the political situation and hence motivation in the country in question.

Chapter 2 addresses cooperation from economic perspectives, namely market-power theory, transaction cost economics, agency theory, resource-based theory, transaction value theory, dynamic capabilities theory, real-options theory, and increasing-returns theory. Cooperation can engender market power. Transaction cost economics views cooperation and alliances as potentially cost-reducing methods of organizing business transactions. Agency theory is concerned with the behavior of alliance partners. Both are “agents” of the other and as such systems must be set up to reduce the risk of self-serving opportunism. The resource-based perspective suggests that partners set up alliances to tap into each other’s specialized resources and strategic assets. Transaction value theory focuses on joint value maximization for the collaborative transaction. Alliances can be considered a real option to invest under conditions of uncertainty. Increasing returns are the norm in knowledge-based industries, and the formation of a network of alliances enables companies to operate as significant players in such markets.

Chapter 6 analyzes a new form of economy, enabled by ICTs, digital platforms, and smart devices to connect transactors (sharers or buyers and sellers) who may not have been able to cooperate otherwise. It provides an overview of the phenomenon of “the platform revolution” (from classic value chain logic to platform business logic). It goes on to explain different types of platform (innovation platform, transaction platform, integration platform), the principles of platform business (network effects, the distribution power law, asymmetric growth and competition) and the tacit cooperative strategies of suppliers, platform providers, and customers. Cooperation is tacit—providers do not interact and customers do not interact, except through ratings. The platform system is set up to maintain this condition. The chapter concludes with an overview of platform governance.

Chapter 23 examines performance in cooperative ventures, a complex issue. The question of performance must be addressed from at least three perspectives; those of the two or more parents and the cooperative entity. Because cooperative ventures are either contractual arrangements between various operational units in the parents or are independent organizations with their equity closely held by the parents, classic measures of firm performance often are not reported publicly and may not even be collected systematically by the parents. The performance of an alliance as a functioning entity may not equate to its performance for its partner or parent companies. For example, it may be subject to a variety of payments such as franchising fees and royalties that benefit one or the other parent, hurt the financial performance of the alliance, but benefit the system as a whole.

Chapter 4 presents behavioral perspectives relevant to cooperative strategy. These perspectives are relational signaling theory, attention-based view, justice theory, and sociological views (social network, social exchange). They complement the more traditional economic, organizational, and managerial perspectives by explaining the effects of a set of relational, cognitive, and social-psychological factors on the formation, governance, and management of strategic alliances. A major theme is that trust is an essential component of social order in cooperation. Trust between partner firms facilitates social exchange, and its value is widely appreciated by the managers of strategic alliances. This chapter examines the significance of trust, its multi-level nature and foundations, followed by a discussion of how trust evolves with alliance development. The chapter closes with a discussion of practical ways through which trust can be enhanced in alliances.

Chapter 13 addresses human resource management and the potential contribution that an appropriate HRM policy can make to alliance success. The chapter outlines key HRM activities and indicates how these are required at different stages of an alliance’s development. It then examines the contribution of HRM to key alliance needs including the selection of personnel, the development of a common culture (including building trust), control, and learning. Its last section considers broader policy issues concerning the approach to HRM in alliances, namely its strategic role and the question of whether a leading alliance partner should standardize its HR practices across different alliances and affiliates. The sensitivity of HRM practices to cultural and institutional norms is noted.

Chapter 22 notes the growing attraction of emerging economies as host locations for foreign direct investment (FDI). While acquisitions are generally the favored mode of FDI into developed-economy markets, cooperative forms allowing for local participation, such as joint ventures, have been more prevalent in emerging economies, often due to the mandatory requirements of host governments. Emerging economies are distinctive environments for MNEs partnering with local firms, and this can give rise to certain challenges. One is a conflict of objectives held by MNEs and their emerging economy alliance partner(s), with the latter prioritizing defensive and developmental needs. Additionally, the number of multinationals from emerging economy firms (EMNEs) has grown substantially, often internationalizing through alliances with developed economy MNEs as well as with firms in other emerging economies.

Chapter 8 deals with those aspects of cooperation that precede the actual process of working together. It considers possible motives for alliances, noting that there are generally at least two, reflecting a company’s response to changes in the external environment and the company’s feeling of vulnerability or deficiency in certain areas of its operations. It may have inadequate market access, technology, brand strength, product range or other factors; it may lack financial muscle, or feel the need for speed to take advantage of a market opportunity that will not be there for long. Strategic, transaction-cost-reducing, and organizational learning motives for cooperative activity are compared and contrasted. Considering the increasingly important role that firms from emerging countries play in the global economy, this chapter also briefly compares the strategic motives of emerging-economy firms with those of developed-economy firms for alliance formation.

After an introduction to the oil and gas industry and its structure, Chapter 15 notes how economic pressures have motivated the formation of alliances. It then identifies different types of alliance in the sector, the motives for forming them, and the benefits that are expected to result. Oil and gas alliances involve nationally strategic and environmentally sensitive assets, and this chapter illustrates the political pressures which they can experience as a result. While there is legitimate concern in host countries about the exploitation of national assets by international oil companies, such companies may also face pressures that stem from political opportunism and corruption. The chapter closes by noting how forming alliances with IT providers to speed up digital applications has become an essential strategy for many oil and gas companies.

Preservatives deter microbial growth, providing crucial functions of safety and durability in composite materials, formulated products, and food packaging. Concern for human health and the environmental impact of some preservatives has led to regulatory restrictions and public pressure to remove individual classes of compounds, such as parabens and chromated copper arsenate, from consumer products. Bans do not address the need for safe, effective alternative preservatives, which are critical for both product performance (including lifespan and therefore life cycle metrics) and consumer safety. In this work, we studied both the safety and efficacy of a series of phenolic preservatives and compared them to common preservatives found in personal care products and building materials. We quantified antimicrobial activity against Aspergillus brasiliensis (mold) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Gram negative bacteria), and we conducted a hazard assessment, complemented by computational modeling, to evaluate the human and environmental health impacts of these chemicals. We found that octyl gallate demonstrates better antimicrobial activity and comparable or lower hazards, compared to current-use preservatives. Therefore, octyl gallate may serve as a viable small-molecule preservative, particularly in conjunction with low concentrations of other preservatives that act through complementary mechanisms.

Making “greener” chemicals involves maximizing resource efficiency and eliminating or reducing hazards to human health and environmental systems. This chapter presents a review of various tools used in chemical design and predictive toxicology as a practical guide for chemists early in the molecular design process to deal with potential concerns on the front end of synthesis or development. A summary of concepts that can be applied in engineering chemicals that are less likely to be absorbed or biologically active is discussed along with the current milieu of software tools used for toxicity prediction. In this context, the challenges that remain in greener molecular design related to computational toxicology are highlighted. Based on these analyses, a proposed ideal green molecular design tool is outlined.

In silico toxicology (IST) approaches to rapidly assess chemical hazard, and usage of such methods is increasing in all applications but especially for regulatory submissions, such as for assessing chemicals under REACH as well as the ICH M7 guideline for drug impurities. There are a number of obstacles to performing an IST assessment, including uncertainty in how such an assessment and associated expert review should be performed or what is fit for purpose, as well as a lack of confidence that the results will be accepted by colleagues, collaborators and regulatory authorities. To address this, a project to develop a series of IST protocols for different hazard endpoints has been initiated and this paper describes the genetic toxicity in silico (GIST) protocol. The protocol outlines a hazard assessment framework including key effects/mechanisms and their relationships to endpoints such as gene mutation and clastogenicity. IST models and data are reviewed that support the assessment of these effects/mechanisms along with defined approaches for combining the information and evaluating the confidence in the assessment. This protocol has been developed through a consortium of toxicologists, computational scientists, and regulatory scientists across several industries to support the implementation and acceptance of in silico approaches.

Mine closure projects are increasingly including consideration of detailed groundwater contaminant models that require inclusion of geochemical conditions, attenuation and plume development. To illustrate these concepts, modelling of a proposed borehole mining (BHM) trial, undertaken as part of a mineral sands development project, is provided as a case study. The BHM trial tests a proposed unconventional mining method, known as borehole mining, and trials the selective in situ removal of ore to reduce the need for overburden removal. The ore is located within an aquifer which resides below the groundwater table and is associated with potentially acid forming (PAF) material. The BHM trial will extract mineralised sands/ore and separate fines (< 53 µm) from the sands. As part of the BHM trial, the fines, neutralised with excess limestone (CaCO₃), and a portion of the ore will be re-injected (with groundwater; 70/30, liquid/solids) back into the cavity space left from extraction. Klohn Crippen Berger was commissioned to determine the likely water qualities resulting from the various scenarios of the borehole re-injection trial. This was assessed using the results of in-field, laboratory geochemical testing and hydrogeochemical modelling. The hydrogeochemical modelling was undertaken using the Geochemist’s Workbench (Bethke & Yeakel 2010) X2t module (2D reactive transport modelling). The models have incorporated the injectate composition (~70% groundwater and ~30% waste materials), aquifer water quality and simplified aquifer mineralogy. Aquifer hydraulic properties were included based on previous hydrogeological characterisation and groundwater modelling investigations. A series of 2D reactive transport models were constructed to simulate two injection options and to undertake sensitivity analysis. This includes aquifer injection for a 5-day period (fines only) and 36-day period (fines and ore), followed by one year of migration under natural groundwater gradients. The purpose of the modelling is to provide confidence in the BHM trial, with the possibility of the results being used to assess contaminant trigger values from the point of injection. Resulting water qualities for the various scenarios were compared to Australian drinking water requirements to provide guidance on the preferred injection methodology, and to assess whether the proposed approach would result in significant water quality impacts in the receiving aquifer. The paper uses this case study to illustrate how reactive transport modelling can assist in mine close assessments.

This field study of 37 small and medium commercial buildings throughout California obtained information on ventilation rate, temperature, and heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system characteristics. The study included seven retail establishments; five restaurants; eight offices; two each of gas stations, hair salons, healthcare facilities, grocery stores, dental offices, and fitness centers; and five other buildings. Fourteen (38%) of the buildings either could not or did not provide outdoor air through the HVAC system. The air exchange rate averaged 1.6 (s.d. = 1.7) exchanges per hour and was similar between buildings with and without outdoor air supplied through the HVAC system, indicating that some buildings have significant leakage or ventilation through open windows and doors. Not all buildings had sufficient air exchange to meet ASHRAE 62.1 Standards, including buildings used for fitness centers, hair salons, offices, and retail establishments. The majority of the time, buildings were within the ASHRAE temperature comfort range. Offices were frequently overcooled in the summer. All of the buildings had filters, but over half the buildings had a filter with a minimum efficiency reporting value rating of 4 or lower, which are not very effective for removing fine particles. Practical Implications Most U.S. commercial buildings (96%) are small- to medium-sized, using nearly 18% of the country’s energy, and sheltering a large population daily. Little is known about the ventilation systems in these buildings. This study found a wide variety of ventilation conditions, with many buildings failing to meet relevant ventilation standards. Regulators may want to consider implementing more complete building inspections at commissioning and point of sale.

This article reflects on the situation and prospects for public services in Great Britain, in the context of the changes in government and governance which have taken place over the last 25 years and in particular of the change of Prime Minister and the reconstruction of the government in the summer of 2007. It argues that government and public servants now need to think afresh about the way in which decisions are taken in government, and about the relationships between government, public services, and the citizens and communities they serve, and suggests the direction which their thinking might take.

This article considers the changes in criminal justice, and in public services more generally, which might follow the re-construction of the British government in the summer of 2007; and the opportunities which those changes might provide for developments in probation and in community justice. It argues that existing assumptions and attitudes could now be re-shaped to provide an approach which is more rational and principled, and no longer hampered by a sense of perpetual turmoil and crisis. Such an approach would emphasize issues such as accountability, relationships, professional values and leadership, and the responsibilities of communities and citizens. It might also be more successful in increasing public confidence, in criminal justice and more generally, and in resolving the wider problems associated with crime and criminality.

This article reflects on the leadership and management of public services, at a time of political and professional appraisal and the appointment of a new prime minister in the UK. It argues that this is a moment of opportunity for leaders of public services and professions, and that they should now impose themselves more firmly on the debate.

The article considers the situation which the Government's reforms of sentencing and penal treatment had reached by the autumn of 2006, and the issues which are likely to arise as the changes take effect. It examines the underlying attitudes to the purpose and nature of punishment, and of criminal justice more generally; the implications for sentencing and the relationship between sentencers and those responsible for giving effect to the sentences imposed; and the prospects for the reforms' success. It reviews the questions that arise from the evidence for `what works', the `science' of risk assessment and the Government's plans for `contestability' and the related issues of accountability and legitimacy. It concludes with some suggestions for themes that might be further developed and new themes that might be introduced.