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A successful design, fabrication and test of silicon photonic circuits requires design tools, process design kits (PDKs), foundries for fabrication, and test facilities. This paper describes the complete design flow of photonic circuits using rapid-prototyping multiproject wafer foundry processes available in the SiEPIC program. The focus of this paper is on rapid prototyping based on electron beam lithography as an alternative and complementary to what is available via deep-UV lithography-based foundries. We describe in detail the PDK and the use of open-source and commercial tools for the design of optical filters, sensors, neuromorphic photonic processors, optical switches, and discuss test and packaging approaches for these designs. We demonstrate that a “germanium less” process can be used to build small systems featuring photoconductive detectors, electronics, and phase shifters.

We demonstrate a silicon-on-insulator micro-ring resonator (MRR) modulator and defect-mediated (DM) detector operating at a wavelength near 2 µm for use in the thulium doped fiber amplifier wavelength band. The MRR modulator was critically coupled with an unbiased notch-depth of 20 dB and Q-factor of 4700. The resonance shift under reverse bias was 23 pm/V with a calculated VπLπ of 2.2 to 2.6 V·cm from -1 to -8 V, respectively. Simulations are in good agreement with the measured data. The experimental modulation bandwidth was 12.5 GHz, limited by the response of the commercial external detector used for this measurement. The DM detector was operated in avalanche mode, had 1.97 µm wavelength responsivities of 0.04 and 0.14 A/W, and had bandwidths greater than 16 and 7.5 GHz at -15 and -30 V biases, respectively. Large-signal measurement demonstrated open eye-diagrams at 5, 10, and 12.5 Gbps for the DM detector and also for an optical link consisting of the modulator and detector integrated on the same silicon chip.

We report on the design, fabrication and characterization of subwavelength grating metamaterial waveguides coated with tellurium oxide. The structures are first fabricated using a standard CMOS compatible process on a silicon-on-insulator platform. Amorphous tellurium oxide top cladding material is then deposited via post-process RF magnetron sputtering. The photonic bandstructure is controlled by adjustment of the device geometry, opening a wide range of operating regimes, including subwavelength propagation, slow light and the photonic bandgap, for various wavelength bands within the 1550 nm telecommunications window. Propagation loss of 1.0 ± 0.1 dB/mm is reported for the tellurium oxide-cladded device, compared to 1.5 ± 0.1 dB/mm propagation loss reported for the silicon dioxide-cladded reference structure. This is the first time that a high-index (n > 2) oxide cladding has been demonstrated for subwavelength grating metamaterial waveguides, thus introducing a new material platform for on-chip integrated optics.

The mid-infrared wavelength region is important for a number of application areas, two of which are optical fibre and free space communications. Silicon photonics can provide inexpensive photonic chips for such applications due to excellent electronic and photonic properties. In this paper, the realisation of active silicon and germanium photonic devices for the mid-infrared spectral region are given. High speed Si depletion type modulators, Si and Ge injection modulators operating at wavelengths up to 8 micrometers, and high speed Si detectors are presented. These devices are integrated with drivers and amplifiers and show very good performance, e.g. data rate in excess of 20 Gb/s.

High-speed and low-power silicon optical modulators are key in realising low cost photonic circuits for data transmission purposes. Depending on the application, different wavelength bands are preferred and therefore designs of optical modulator, which operate in these bands, are required. Here we present our recent work on silicon optical modulators at 1310, 1550, 2000 and 3800 nm wavelengths.

Silicon photonics micro-ring resonator (MRR) and Mach-Zehnder waveguide based sensors have attracted much attention in recent years because of their capacity for high sensitivity, small footprint and mass-scalable (low cost) potential. This type of sensor is based on the detection of changes in optical amplitude/phase due to small changes in local, near-field refractive index (RI) in the environment surrounding the waveguide device. Sensitivity to ever smaller changes in RI are sought, e.g. for vapour/gas based sensing, which may be realised by designing devices based around the slot waveguide. Furthermore, tailoring resonant line-shapes to generate asymmetric (or Fano-like) modes through series, parallel or ‘nested’ arrangements of coupled MRRs also demonstrates the potential for such sensitivity enhancement. This type of device is likely to be of interest, for example where sensing of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) is important, e.g. in industrial process and environmental monitoring. We demonstrate a number of such photonic sensing platforms, combining both the slot waveguide and both established and novel ‘photonic molecule’ structures, fabricated on silicon-on-insulator using standard foundry fabrication processes. Integrated TiN heaters provide the capacity for thermal tuning in order to manipulate the spectral characteristics of our devices and the sensitivity of the devices to a range of VOCs; benzene, toluene and xylene, are investigated as exemplars using a custom-made vapour delivery system. Sensor performance is established with the assistance of device modelling and comparison made with conventional single MRR devices as a reference. The potential of adding functional layers to the devices as a method for achieving chemical selectivity will also be discussed.

Photo-detection in the wavelength range 1850 to 2000 nm using evanescently-coupled germanium detectors grown on silicon waveguides is described. Devices were fabricated at a silicon photonics foundry using a process flow associated with operation in the O , C and L bands, and as such offer a solution for extended wavelength detection which is readily available. Intrinsic sensitivity is via indirect band transitions, which is enhanced by tensile strain and we postulate that it may be further enhanced by defects which arise from the thermal processes associated with Ge on Si growth. The responsivity of p-i-n detectors is 20 mA/W at 1850 nm falling to 5 mA/W at 2000 nm, for a detector length of 50 μm. Responsivity is suppressed by electrical doping in the germanium detector which provides parasitic absorption from free carriers. Modifications to the current design are suggested such that integrated germanium p-i-n detectors, directly grown on silicon waveguides would be suitable for high-bandwidth photo-detection up to at least a wavelength of 2000 nm. A Separate-Absorption-Charge-Multiplication Avalanche Photo-Detector is fabricated exploiting the same indirect transition. This detector has a responsivity of 0.31 A/W at 1850 nm and 0.08 A/W at 1970 nm, for a detector length of only 14 μm.

We demonstrate a single-arm Mach-Zehnder interferometer (SAMZI) modulator based on asymmetric long-period gratings for TE0-TE1 mode conversion integrated with a p-n junction doped waveguide for relative phase modulation between these modes via the electro-optic effect. The device consists of two long-period grating sections, with the active waveguide modulator section in-between, and inverse tapers at the input (to couple in only the TE0 mode), and the output (to filter out the excited TE1 mode). The periodicity dictates a central mode conversion wavelength and thus the region of operation for the modulator. Simulations are performed to investigate passive device properties, such as central wavelength sensitivity, free spectral range, and coupling coefficient, as well as active performance of the modulator. A fabricated device was characterized with a central wavelength of 1490 nm, a free spectral range of 0.975 nm, and a thermal stability of −0.521 rad/K or 42.4 pm/K. By balancing the lengths of each section, the device can be made athermal. Steady-state characterization shows a maximum on-off extinction ratio of 3.96 dB for a voltage difference of −8 V. The total phase-shift of the measured device agrees with simulation, with a phase-shift of 0.34π at −8 V. The VL of the measured device is 2.96 Vcm at −1 V and 6.37 Vcm at −8 V.

We demonstrate the operation of a monolithic, mid-IR (∼2μm) optical interconnect featuring a micro-ring resonator modulator and a defect-mediated silicon detector. Preliminary measurements show excellent DC modulator performance and a maximum detector responsivity of ∼0.045 A/W.

Silicon photonics has traditionally focused on near infrared wavelengths, with tremendous progress seen over the past decade. However, more recently, research has extended into mid infrared wavelengths of 2 μm and beyond. Optical modulators are a key component for silicon photonics interconnects at both the conventional communication wavelengths of 1.3 μm and 1.55 μm, and the emerging mid-infrared wavelengths. The mid-infrared wavelength range is particularly interesting for a number of applications, including sensing, healthcare and communications. The absorption band of conventional germanium photodetectors only extends to approximately 1.55 μm, so alternative methods of photodetection are required for the mid-infrared wavelengths. One possible CMOS compatible solution is a silicon defect detector. Here, we present our recent results in these areas. Modulation at the wavelength of 2 μm has been theoretically investigated, and photodetection above 25 Gb/s has been practically demonstrated.

The 2 μm wavelength band has become a promising candidate to be the next communication window. We demonstrate high-speed modulators based on a 220 nm silicon-on-insulator platform working at a wavelength of 1950 nm, using the free carrier plasma dispersion effect in silicon. A Mach–Zehnder interferometer modulator and a microring modulator have been characterized. At 1950 nm, the carrier-depletion modulator operates at a data rate of 20 Gbit/s with an extinction ratio of 5.8 dB and insertion loss of 13 dB. The modulation efficiency (V𝜋��·L𝜋��) is 2.68 V·cm at 4 V reverse bias. The device operation is broadband, and we also characterize its performance at 1550 nm. At 1550 nm, an open eye is obtained at 30 Gbit/s. The difference in bandwidth is caused by the bandwidth limit of the 2 μm measurement setup. We also show a ring modulator paired with a low power integrated driver working in hybrid carrier depletion and injection mode at a data rate of 3 Gbit/s with power consumption of 2.38 pJ/bit in the 2 μm wavelength range. This work is a proof of principle demonstration and paves a route toward a full silicon-based transceiver in the 2 μm window. NRF (Natl Research Foundation, S’pore) Published version

Micro-ring modulators for use in high-speed telecommunication transceivers designed for silicon-on-insulator (SOI) for 2 μm wavelength operation are described and simulated with comparison to 1.55 μm. Device simulations show improved DC modulation performance due to the free-carrier effect described in the plasma dispersion relations which is stronger for longer wavelengths. WDM applications are described and simulated. Micro-ring modulator devices were designed and fabricated at A*STAR IME and are pending measurement.

We report the measurement of optical loss in submicron silicon-on-insulator waveguides at a wavelength of 2.02 μm for the fundamental TE mode. Devices were fabricated at IMEC and at ASTAR's Institute of Microelectronics (IME) and thus these measurements are applicable to studies which require fabrication using standard foundry technology. Propagation loss for strip and rib waveguides of 3.3 ± 0.5 and 1.9 ± 0.2 dB cm−1 were measured. Waveguide bending loss in strip and rib waveguides was measured to be 0.36 and 0.68 dB per 90° bend for a radius of 3 μm. Doped waveguide loss in rib waveguides was measured for both n-type and p-type species at two doping densities for each doping type. Measured results from propagation, bending, and free-carrier loss were found to be in good agreement with analytical or numerical models. Loss due to lattice defects introduced by ion-implantation is found to be underestimated by a previously proposed empirical model. The thermal annealing of the lattice defects is consistent with removal of the silicon divacancy.