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On November 5–8, 2019, the “Mars Extant Life: What's Next?” conference was convened in Carlsbad, New Mexico. The conference gathered a community of actively publishing experts in disciplines related to habitability and astrobiology. Primary conclusions are as follows: A significant subset of conference attendees concluded that there is a realistic possibility that Mars hosts indigenous microbial life. A powerful theme that permeated the conference is that the key to the search for martian extant life lies in identifying and exploring refugia (“oases”), where conditions are either permanently or episodically significantly more hospitable than average. Based on our existing knowledge of Mars, conference participants highlighted four potential martian refugium (not listed in priority order): Caves, Deep Subsurface, Ices, and Salts. The conference group did not attempt to reach a consensus prioritization of these candidate environments, but instead felt that a defensible prioritization would require a future competitive process. Within the context of these candidate environments, we identified a variety of geological search strategies that could narrow the search space. Additionally, we summarized a number of measurement techniques that could be used to detect evidence of extant life (if present). Again, it was not within the scope of the conference to prioritize these measurement techniques—that is best left for the competitive process. We specifically note that the number and sensitivity of detection methods that could be implemented if samples were returned to Earth greatly exceed the methodologies that could be used at Mars. Finally, important lessons to guide extant life search processes can be derived both from experiments carried out in terrestrial laboratories and analog field sites and from theoretical modeling.

The Joint Workshop on Induced Special Regions convened scientists and planetary protection experts to assess the potential of inducing special regions through lander or rover activity. An Induced Special Region is defined as a place where the presence of the spacecraft could induce water activity and temperature to be sufficiently high and persist for long enough to plausibly harbor life. The questions the workshop participants addressed were: (1) What is a safe stand-off distance, or formula to derive a safe distance, to a purported special region? (2) Questions about RTGs (Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator), other heat sources, and their ability to induce special regions. (3) Is it possible to have an infected area on Mars that does not contaminate the rest of Mars? The workshop participants reached a general consensus addressing the posed questions, in summary: (1) While a spacecraft on the surface of Mars may not be able to explore a special region during the prime mission, the safe stand-off distance would decrease with time because the sterilizing environment, that is the martian surface would progressively clean the exposed surfaces. However, the analysis supporting such an exploration should ensure that the risk to exposing interior portions of the spacecraft (i.e., essentially unsterilized) to the martian surface is minimized. (2) An RTG at the surface of Mars would not create a Special Region but the short-term result depends on kinetics of melting, freezing, deliquescence, and desiccation. While a buried RTG could induce a Special Region, it would not pose a long-term contamination threat to Mars, with the possible exception of a migrating RTG in an icy deposit. (3) Induced Special Regions can allow microbial replication to occur (by definition), but such replication at the surface is unlikely to globally contaminate Mars. An induced subsurface Special Region would be isolated and microbial transport away from subsurface site is highly improbable.

This work aims at addressing whether a catastrophic failure of an entry, descent, and landing event of a Multimission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator-based lander could embed the heat sources into the martian subsurface and create a local environment that (1) would temporarily satisfy the conditions for a martian Special Region and (2) could establish a transport mechanism through which introduced terrestrial organisms could be mobilized to naturally occurring Special Regions elsewhere on Mars. Two models were run, a primary model by researchers at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and a secondary model by researchers at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, both of which were based on selected starting conditions for various surface composition cases that establish the worst-case scenario, including geological data collected by the Mars Science Laboratory at Gale Crater. The summary outputs of both modeling efforts showed similar results: that the introduction of the modeled heat source could temporarily create the conditions established for a Special Region, but that there would be no transport mechanism by which an introduced terrestrial microbe, even if it was active during the temporarily induced Special Region conditions, could be transported to a naturally occurring Special Region of Mars.

This paper reports on a one day field validation exercise that took place in the context of the 2016 Canadian Space Agency-led Mars Sample Return Analogue Deployment. Here, a “human” field team using traditional geological methods was given the same objective as the rover-based remote science operations team: to select the sample within the site with highest total organic carbon content as a proxy for signs of life. While the exercise, by design, was limited in operations time, a comprehensive data set was assembled related to decision-making, comprising detailed daily reports and logs produced by the remote science operations team, and a continuous voice recording and GPS track for the field team. Summaries of these data are tabulated in this report. These data enabled a direct comparison of the data developed by each team, and the decisions they took, leading to an assessment of both accuracy (effectiveness of task completion) and efficiency (time for task completion). This paper reports: (1) the surprising speed (15 min) at which the field team established basic stratigraphic relationships, (2) the relative effectiveness with which the field team identified and visually tracked indistinct bedding features, and (3) challenges related to assessing scientific success in a geological field setting, highlighted by differences in the stratigraphic sections produced by the two teams, and the detection of a ‘marker’ bed by the field team and not by the remote science team. As primary conclusions, we note that (1) this exercise has demonstrated higher efficiency a factor of around 50 times for a human team compared to a remotely operated rover - for scientific discovery tasks conducted across a relatively simple, gently undulating, 200 m × 200 m terrain, and (2) the results broadly support the concept of walkabout as an effective strategy for robotic planetary exploration (Yingst et al., 2018, and references therein) with a specific finding related to mapping stratigraphic relationships. We also discuss the value and shortcomings of this validation approach and provide lessons learned and recommendations for the design of future analogue mission exercises.

The recent entry of the US multinational Walmart into South Africa has proved to be a source of controversy. Key stakeholders in South Africa objected to the merger and attempted to block it unless certain conditions were met. The aim of this study was to examine the controversy and the conditions surrounding the merger. The research employed a qualitative archival analysis to examine publicly available sources of information with regard to the merger. The findings revealed key stakeholders’ concerns that Walmart’s entry would lead to an increase in imports which would displace local producers, increase unemployment, marginalise trade unions and lower labour standards unless certain conditions were met. The results also revealed problems relating to the firm’s primary focus on “business” while neglecting “public interest” issues, naively relying on their “local retailer” to manage key stakeholders, and assuming that their perceived controversial reputation regarding treatment of trade unions and their views about unemployment as well as the controversies surrounding their history of entry into other global markets would not have the major negative impact it did on stakeholders in South Africa.

The return of samples from known locations on Mars is among the highest priority goals of the international planetary science community. A possible scenario for Mars Sample Return (MSR) is a series of 3 missions: sample cache, fetch, and retrieval. The NASA Mars 2020 mission represents the first cache mission and was the focus of the CanMars analogue mission described in this paper. The major objectives for CanMars included comparing the accuracy of selecting samples remotely using rover data versus a traditional human field party, testing the efficiency of remote science operations with periodic pre-planned strategic observations (Strategic Traverse Days), assessing the utility of realistic autonomous science capabilities to the remote science team, and investigating the factors that affect the quality of sample selection decision-making in light of returned sample analysis. CanMars was conducted over two weeks in November 2015 and continued over three weeks in October and November 2016 at an analogue site near Hanksville, Utah, USA, that was unknown to the Mission Control Team located at the University of Western Ontario (Western) in London, Ontario, Canada. This operations architecture for CanMars was based on the Phoenix and Mars Exploration Rover missions together with previous analogue missions led by Western with the Mission Control Team being divided into Planning and Science sub-teams. In advance of the 2015 operations, the Science Team used satellite data, chosen to mimic datasets available from Mars-orbiting instruments, to produce a predictive geological map for the landing ellipse and a set of hypotheses for the geology and astrobiological potential of the landing site. The site was proposed to consist of a series of weakly cemented multi-coloured sedimentary rocks comprising carbonates, sulfates, and clays, and sinuous ridges with a resistant capping unit, interpreted as inverted paleochannels. Both the 2015 CanMars mission, which achieved 11 sols of operations, and the first part of the 2016 mission (sols 12–21), were conducted with the Mars Exploration Science Rover (MESR) and a series of integrated and hand-held instruments designed to mimic the payload of the Mars 2020 rover. Part 2 of the 2016 campaign (sols 22–39) was implemented without the MESR rover and was conducted exclusively by the field team as a Fast Motion Field Test (FMFT) with hand-carried instruments and with the equivalent of three sols of operations being executed in a single actual day. A total of 8 samples were cached during the 39 sols from which the Science Team prioritized 3 for “return to Earth”. Various science autonomy capabilities, based on flight-proven or near-future techniques intended for actual rover missions, were tested throughout the 2016 CanMars activities, with autonomous geological classification and targeting and autonomous pointing refinement being used extensively during the FMFT. Blind targeting, contingency sequencing, and conditional sequencing were also employed. Validation of the CanMars cache mission was achieved through various methods and approaches. The use of dedicated documentarians in mission control provided a detailed record of how and why decisions were made. Multiple separate field validation exercises employing humans using traditional geological techniques were carried out. All 8 of the selected samples plus a range of samples from the landing site region, collected out-of-simulation, have been analysed using a range of laboratory analytical techniques. A variety of lessons learned for both future analogue missions and planetary exploration missions are provided, including: dynamic collaboration between the science and planning teams as being key for mission success; the more frequent use of spectrometers and micro-imagers having remote capabilities rather than contact instruments; the utility of strategic traverse days to provide additional time for scientific discussion and meaningful interpretation of the data; the benefit of walkabout traverse strategies along with multi-sol plans with complex decisions trees to acquire a large amount of contextual data; and the availability of autonomous geological targeting, which enabled complex multi-sol plans gathering large suites of geological and geochemical survey data. Finally, the CanMars MSR activity demonstrated the utility of analogue missions in providing opportunities to engage and educate children and the public, by providing tangible hands-on linkages between current robotic missions and future human space missions. Public education and outreach was a priority for CanMars and a dedicated lead coordinated a strong presence on social media (primarily Twitter and Facebook), articles in local, regional, and national news networks, and interaction with the local community in London, Ontario. A further core objective of CanMars was to provide valuable learning opportunities to students and post-doctoral fellows in preparation for future planetary exploration missions. A learning goals survey conducted at the end of the 2016 activities had 90% of participants “somewhat agreeing” or “strongly agreeing” that participation in the mission has helped them to increase their understanding of the four learning outcomes.

Mars exploration motivates the search for extraterrestrial life, the development of space technologies, and the design of human missions and habitations. Here, we seek new insights and pose unresolved questions relating to the natural history of Mars, habitability, robotic and human exploration, planetary protection, and the impacts on human society. Key observations and findings include:–high escape rates of early Mars' atmosphere, including loss of water, impact present-day habitability;–putative fossils on Mars will likely be ambiguous biomarkers for life;–microbial contamination resulting from human habitation is unavoidable; and–based on Mars' current planetary protection category, robotic payload(s) should characterize the local martian environment for any life-forms prior to human habitation.Some of the outstanding questions are:–which interpretation of the hemispheric dichotomy of the planet is correct;–to what degree did deep-penetrating faults transport subsurface liquids to Mars' surface;–in what abundance are carbonates formed by atmospheric processes;–what properties of martian meteorites could be used to constrain their source locations;–the origin(s) of organic macromolecules;–was/is Mars inhabited;–how can missions designed to uncover microbial activity in the subsurface eliminate potential false positives caused by microbial contaminants from Earth;–how can we ensure that humans and microbes form a stable and benign biosphere; and–should humans relate to putative extraterrestrial life from a biocentric viewpoint (preservation of all biology), or anthropocentric viewpoint of expanding habitation of space?Studies of Mars' evolution can shed light on the habitability of extrasolar planets. In addition, Mars exploration can drive future policy developments and confirm (or put into question) the feasibility and/or extent of human habitability of space.

We provide a historical context of the International Conference on Mars Polar Science and Exploration and summarize the proceedings from the 6th iteration of this meeting. In particular, we identify five key Mars polar science questions based primarily on presentations and discussions at the conference and discuss the overlap between some of those questions. We briefly describe the seven scientific field trips that were offered at the conference, which greatly supplemented conference discussion of Mars polar processes and landforms. We end with suggestions for measurements, modeling, and laboratory and field work that were highlighted during conference discussion as necessary steps to address key knowledge gaps.

The NASA Mars 2020 rover mission will explore an astrobiologically relevant martian site to investigate regional geology, evaluate past habitability, seek signs of ancient life, and assemble a returnable cache of samples. The spacecraft is based on successful heritage design of the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover, but includes a new scientific payload and other advanced capabilities. The Mars 2020 science payload features the first two Raman spectrometers on Mars, the first microfocus X-ray fluorescence instrument, the first ground-penetrating radar, an infrared spectrometer, an upgraded microscopic and stereo context cameras and weather station, and a demonstration unit for oxygen production on Mars. The instrument suite combines visible and multispectral imaging with coordinated measurements of chemistry and mineralogy, from the submillimeter to the regional scale. Using the data acquired by the science instruments as a guide, the team will collect core samples of rock and regolith selected to represent the geologic diversity of the landing site and maximize the potential for future Earth-based analyses to answer fundamental questions in astrobiology and planetary science. These samples will be drilled, hermetically sealed, and cached on the martian surface for possible retrieval and return to Earth by future missions. The Mars 2020 spacecraft is designed and built according to an unprecedented set of biological, organic, and inorganic cleanliness requirements to maximize the scientific value of this sample suite. Here, we present the scientific vision for the Mars 2020 mission, provide an overview of the analytic capabilities of the science payload, and discuss how Mars 2020 seeks to further our understanding of habitability, biosignatures, and possibility of life beyond Earth.

Return of samples from the surface of Mars has been a goal of the international Mars science community for many years. Affirmation by NASA and ESA of the importance of Mars exploration led the agencies to establish the international MSR Objectives and Samples Team (iMOST). The purpose of the iMOST team is to re-evaluate and update the sample-related science and engineering objectives of a Mars Sample Return (MSR) campaign. Here we will present a subset of these goals focusing on the importance of MSR to understanding the Martian interior. The chemistry and mineralogy of the Martian interior is largely constrained by the type of samples we have of Mars – martian meteorites – with inputs from geophysics, surface rover analyses of igneous rocks, and orbital analyses of the crust. However, comparisons of martian meteorites and igneous rocks analyzed on the surface of Mars show that martian meteorites do not represent average martian crust or magmas. Young Martian meteorites and ancient igneous rocks analyzed in situ by rovers have different elemental compositions, suggesting different source regions – this could be confirmed by radiogenic isotope data and chronology on returned samples; these differences are attributable to a sampling bias inherent the process that delivered the meteorites to Earth. Therefore, a proposed iMOST objective would be to use samples of igneous rocks - either in place or transported - with a range of compositions and an emphasis on older (>3.5 Ga) ages, to help reconstruct the processes that have affected the origin and modification of the interior. Understanding the petrogenesis of igneous rocks sampled from well-documented locations from a well-constrained igneous unit would provide novel insights into the physical properties of martian magmas; the composition(s) of their mantle sources including major, trace, and volatile elements, noble gases, and isotopic characteristics; the conditions of magma genesis; the timing and duration of igneous activity; and subsequent modification by secondary processes.

s and papers in preparation describe the ‘‘tentative’’ detection of dichloropropane and chlorobenzene at levels of a few tens of nanograms per gram in a core drilled into a mudstone at Yellowknife Bay (e.g.. Summons et al., 2014a,b). A significant caveat here is that all three missions used thermolysis and pyrolysis to volatilize organic compounds so that they are amenable to gas chromatographic and mass spectrometric analysis. A series of studies (Navarro-Gonzalez et al., 2006, 2010, 2011; NavarroGonzalez and McKay, 2011) suggested that the presence of perchlorate and other oxidants in the martian regolith renders the Viking results difficult to interpret because of the high probability of either oxidizing or chlorinating indigenous organic molecules during heating. These observations have been contested (Biemann, 2007). As a result of these complications, the Panel did not rely on the earlier non-detections of organics in Mars regolith. The more recent detections of chlorobenzene (or possibly its aromatic precursors) and other chlorohydrocarbons by MSL (e.g., Freissinet et al., 2014) are considered to provide likely lower limits for these compounds. The OCP briefly considered organic concentrations in analog terrestrial rocks as another constraint on what to expect on Mars. Fine-grained sedimentary rocks that have not been oxidized or weathered constitute the type of sample that we might hope to return from Mars. On Earth, similar rocks commonly contain > 0.1% (100 ppm) TOC, and contain many individual biomarkers at levels > 1 ppm. Even those sediments considered to be relatively poor in organics contain > 0.01% (10 ppm) TOC (Mayer, 1994), and yield individual biomarkers at levels > 10 ng/g (e.g., Lipp et al., 2008). Soils from the Atacama Desert are reported to have 32 ppm TOC (Navarro-Gonzalez et al., 2010), an order of magnitude below typical ‘‘organic poor’’ marine sediments. Subcritical water extraction of subsurface Atacama soils ( Jungay region) followed by derivatization and capillary electrophoresis of the fluorescently labeled amines has demonstrated individual amines and amino acids at the 50– 100 ng/g level (Skelley et al., 2007). The earlier MSR SSG II panel considered a more extreme example of organic-poor sediments (i.e., a highly oxidized sedimentary rock that had been buried and undergone thermal maturation). Although such rocks have similar levels of TOC (approximately 0.01%), diagenesis has rendered most biomarkers into macromolecular kerogen, which is not extractable. They thus estimated expected concentrations for hydrocarbon biomarkers of 0.1–1.0 ng/g in such a rock (see Section 2.4 for details of this calculation). There are several limitations to using such terrestrial analogs to predict concentrations of martian organics. First and foremost, there is no a priori reason to expect that concentrations of organics in terrestrial rocks would be indicative of those on Mars. Indeed, valid arguments can be made for their being either higher or lower than indigenous martian concentrations. For example, with lower organic input and more oxidizing subsurface conditions, martian rocks might have lower organic concentrations. If microbial activity were more limited (or absent) on Mars, residual organic concentrations might be higher. Second, it is unclear which terrestrial rocks, sediments, or soils we should choose as appropriate analogs. Even considering that oxidized rocks represent a reasonable lower bound for those found on Mars, the goal of the mission is clearly not to sample and return the most oxidized martian rocks. Indeed, it is unclear whether scientific goals could be met with such a rock even given zero organic contamination. The third concern expressed by the OCP is that hydrocarbons (the dominant biomarkers in thermally mature terrestrial rocks, and those considered primarily by the MSR SSG II report) may not be the class of organics that are most abundant or interesting on Mars. With no active tectonics to deeply bury sediments under reducing conditions, biomolecules (or even meteoritic organic compounds) might be transformed to more oxidized species rather than more reduced ones. In summary, consideration of terrestrial analog rocks indicates that organic concentrations in martian rocks might span a huge range around those directly measured in meteorites. We therefore conclude that this line of argument provides little firm footing on which to construct quantitative limits. A final constraint on expected concentrations in the absence of martian biota, previously considered by the OCSSG report and by Benner et al. (2000), can be derived from estimated rates of delivery of organic carbon to the surface of Mars by meteorites. Meteorites deposit an estimated 2.4 · 10 g/year of organic carbon to the martian surface (Flynn, 1996). If allowed to accumulate over 3 billion years, and given a Martian surface area of 3.6 · 10 m, this would result in 20 kg/m of organic carbon. Assuming a mixing depth of 1 m and rock density of 4 g/mL results in a predicted TOC concentration of 5 mg/g. A much more conservative mixing depth of 100 m would lower this to 50 lg/g. If we presume that this organic carbon has a molecular makeup similar to that of Murchison (see Table 7), where functional classes of molecules represent approximately 0.05% of TOC, we predict approximately 2.5 lg/g of each class of organics (1 m mixing depth). Further assuming that each class comprises 10–100 compounds, this yields a final prediction of approximately 20–200 ng/g per compound (or 0.2–2 ng/g for the 100-m mixing depth). These estimates span Table 7. Distribution of Carbon in the Murchison CM2 Meteorite

Third International Workshop on Instrumentation for Planetary Missions; Pasadena, California, 24–27 October 2016

Sixth International Conference on Mars Polar Science and Exploration; Reykjavík, Iceland; 5–9 September 2016

A committee of the Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group (MEPAG) has reviewed and updated the description of Special Regions on Mars as places where terrestrial organisms might replicate (per the COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy). This review and update was conducted by an international team (SR-SAG2) drawn from both the biological science and Mars exploration communities, focused on understanding when and where Special Regions could occur. The study applied recently available data about martian environments and about terrestrial organisms, building on a previous analysis of Mars Special Regions (2006) undertaken by a similar team. Since then, a new body of highly relevant information has been generated from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (launched in 2005) and Phoenix (2007) and data from Mars Express and the twin Mars Exploration Rovers (all 2003). Results have also been gleaned from the Mars Science Laboratory (launched in 2011). In addition to Mars data, there is a considerable body of new data regarding the known environmental limits to life on Earth-including the potential for terrestrial microbial life to survive and replicate under martian environmental conditions. The SR-SAG2 analysis has included an examination of new Mars models relevant to natural environmental variation in water activity and temperature; a review and reconsideration of the current parameters used to define Special Regions; and updated maps and descriptions of the martian environments recommended for treatment as "Uncertain" or "Special" as natural features or those potentially formed by the influence of future landed spacecraft. Significant changes in our knowledge of the capabilities of terrestrial organisms and the existence of possibly habitable martian environments have led to a new appreciation of where Mars Special Regions may be identified and protected. The SR-SAG also considered the impact of Special Regions on potential future human missions to Mars, both as locations of potential resources and as places that should not be inadvertently contaminated by human activity.

In February 2012, a conference was convened at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in La Jolla, California, on the subject of life detection in extraterrestrial samples (program and abstracts available at http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/ lifedetection2012). The aim of the conference was to explore the kinds of tools, methods, and approaches necessary for detecting evidence of life in extraterrestrial samples, including those that arrive on Earth by natural processes and those that are deliberately returned by engineered missions. Samples that might be returned from Mars by a future mission were a primary topic of interest. Presentations and discussions at the conference drew upon diverse fields of research, including meteorite studies, modern and ancient terrestrial analog studies, studies of samples returned by past lunar and comet sample return missions, studies of modern traces of life on Earth, and studies of the facilities needed to conduct this kind of research. The conference program was organized with extensive discussion sessions. This report summarizes the results of the conference. The topic of life detection was examined from two different but partially overlapping perspectives: the ‘‘science perspective’’ arising from the desire to know whether life ever arose on Mars and the ‘‘planetary protection perspective’’ arising from the need to protect our own planet from contamination by any potentially harmful living extraterrestrial organisms that may be contained in returned samples. The former relates to detection of any kind of evidence of either ancient or present-day life, whereas the latter is concerned with evidence of present-day viable organisms. A review of the topic of life detection is timely given the scope of recent advances in life-detection studies on Earth, the publication of the National Research Council’s Planetary Science Decadal Survey (which identified seeking the signs of life via Mars sample return (MSR) as its highest priority in the flagship class of missions; National Research Council, 2011), as well as the strategic emphasis within both NASA and ESA on life detection. One of the primary approaches to life detection is via the study of extraterrestrial samples, although other astrobiological approaches also exist. In the case of a potential MSR campaign, significant forward planning is required to ensure best possible practices are implemented throughout the campaign (iMARS Working Group, 2008; MEPAG E2E-iSAG, 2012): from the design and operation of a sample collection rover to containment and preservation of samples in transit, and appropriate handling and analysis of the samples after they have returned to Earth. The array of planned or possible life-detection strategies and measurements has implications for virtually every aspect of a sample return campaign. Thus, it is critical to understand these strategies and measurements well in advance to avoid compromising the fundamental scientific objectives and planetary protection requirements of an MSR campaign. Much of the discussion summarized below assumed MSR would be a robotic endeavor. However, the mission may ultimately involve humans rather than robots. In that case, some aspects of laboratory analyses and sample handling may need to be reassessed. The conference was also an introduction to a subsequent planetary protection workshop dealing specifically with the planetary protection test protocol.

The Conference on Biosignature Preservation and Detection in Mars Analog Environments held in May 2016 brought together scientists to discuss microbial biosignatures in Mars analog habitable environments. Five analog environments were discussed: (1) hydrothermal spring systems, (2) subaqueous environments, (3) subaerial environments, (4) subsurface environments, and (5) iron-rich systems. This paper details the major messages that resulted from the discussions and will be followed by a review paper that adds significant detail from the published literature and interpretations from the writing committee of the workshop for future research and application to astrobiological exploration missions. Key Words: Biosignature preservation—Biosignature detection—Mars analog environments—Conference report—Astrobiological exploration. Astrobiology 17, 1–2.

This paper examines the relationship between servant leadership and interpersonal trust in South Africa. The results of this empirical investigation, conducted among low level employees and their managers, revealed a statistically significant relationship between servant leadership and interpersonal trust using Spearman’s r-value of 0.664 (p< 0.05). These findings will be discussed in terms of their implications for establishing what kind of leadership model might work at the Base of the Pyramid (BOP) and how this approach might build trust among stakeholders in the informal economy in South Africa.

It has been widely understood for many years that an essential component of a Mars Sample Return mission is a Sample Receiving Facility (SRF). The purpose of such a facility would be to take delivery of the flight hardware that lands on Earth, open the spacecraft and extract the sample container and samples, and conduct an agreed-upon test protocol, while ensuring strict containment and contamination control of the samples while in the SRF. Any samples that are found to be non-hazardous (or are rendered non-hazardous by sterilization) would then be transferred to long-term curation. Although the general concept of an SRF is relatively straightforward, there has been considerable discussion about implementation planning. The Mars Exploration Program carried out an analysis of the attributes of an SRF to establish its scope, including minimum size and functionality, budgetary requirements (capital cost, operating costs, cost profile), and development schedule. The approach was to arrange for three independent design studies, each led by an architectural design firm, and compare the results. While there were many design elements in common identified by each study team, there were significant differences in the way human operators were to interact with the systems. In aggregate, the design studies provided insight into the attributes of a future SRF and the complex factors to consider for future programmatic planning.

This article examines the plausible interactions and ramifications of chronic and acute stressors in the workplace. Our position is that current organizational change and work stress models inadequately address the subjective experience of employees. We use existing physiological adaptation paradigms as starting points to illuminate the psychological responses to multiple and simultaneous environmental demands. A new framework is developed, the Asynchronous Multiple Overlapping Change (AMOC) model, to account for the complexity of contemporary work settings. We suggest that the net effect of employee response to continuous major and minor organizational changes is a primary contributor to employee resistance to change: The cumulative impact of multiple and sometimes conflicting change initiatives eventually overwhelms cognitive appraisal and coping mechanisms. Other theoretical, empirical, and practical implications of the proposed framework are also discussed.

The question of whether there is or was life on Mars has been one of the most pivotal since Schiaparellis' telescopic observations of the red planet. With the advent of the space age, this question can be addressed directly by exploring the surface of Mars and by bringing samples to Earth for analysis. The latter, however, is not free of problems. Life can be found virtually everywhere on Earth. Hence the potential for contaminating the Mars samples and compromising their scientific integrity is not negligible. Conversely, if life is present in samples from Mars, this may represent a potential source of extraterrestrial biological contamination for Earth. A range of measures and policies, collectively termed 'planetary protection', are employed to minimise risks and thereby prevent undesirable consequences for the terrestrial biosphere. This report documents discussions and conclusions from a workshop held in 2012, which followed a public conference focused on current capabilities for performing life-detection studies on Mars samples. The workshop focused on the evaluation of Mars samples that would maximise scientific productivity and inform decision making in the context of planetary protection. Workshop participants developed a strong consensus that the same measurements could be employed to effectively inform both science and planetary protection, when applied in the context of two competing hypotheses: 1) that there is no detectable life in the samples; or 2) that there is martian life in the samples. Participants then outlined a sequence for sample processing and defined analytical methods that would test these hypotheses. They also identified critical developments to enable the analysis of samples from Mars. © 2014 The Committee on Space Research (COSPAR).

The Mars Program Planning Group (MPPG) was an agency wide effort, chartered in March 2012 by the NASA Associate Administrator for Science, in collaboration with NASA's Associate Administrator for Human Exploration and Operations, the Chief Scientist, and the Chief Technologist. NASA tasked the MPPG to develop foundations for a program-level architecture for robotic exploration of Mars that is consistent with the President's challenge of sending humans to the Mars system in the decade of the 2030s and responsive to the primary scientific goals of the 2011 NRC Decadal Survey for Planetary Science. The Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group (MEPAG) also sponsored a Precursor measurement Strategy Analysis Group (P-SAG) to revisit prior assessments of required precursor measurements for the human exploration of Mars. This paper will discuss the key results of the MPPG and P-SAG efforts to update and refine our understanding of the Strategic Knowledge Gaps (SKGs) required to successfully conduct human Mars missions.

(1994). South Africa. International Studies of Management & Organization: Vol. 24, Research Sites: Considering Some Less-Known Locations, pp. 190-208.

Processes that operate at planetary surfaces have the potential to record a history of planetary evolution in the form of sedimentary rocks. This is important because our experience on Earth shows that sediments and sedimentary rocks are the dominant archive of high-resolution proxies of present and past tectonic, climatic, and biological processes. Our understanding of the evolution of Earth’s very ancient climate and paleobiological records derives from detailed examination of the mineralogical, textural, and geochemical signatures preserved in the sedimentary rock record. Sedimentary rocks were first recognized on Mars less than a decade ago (Malin and Edgett, 2000). Recent interpretations of data collected by the Mars Express and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter spacecraft have confirmed the surprising abundance of these sedimentary rocks, the past role of water on the martian surface, and the similarity—in some cases—to sedimentary rocks formed on Earth. Thick sulfaterich deposits invite comparison to terrestrial evaporites (Grotzinger et al., 2005). In other cases, clay-rich strata are interpreted as the terminal deposits of source-to-sink systems with well-developed fluvial networks in the upper reaches of watersheds that date back to a much wetter period in Mars’ earliest history (Ehlmann et al., 2008; Metz et al., 2009). However, these Earth-like depositional systems contrast with other deposits that may be unique in the Solar System: for example, vast terrains as large as Earth’s continents covered by thick veneers of strata that may derive entirely from settling out of wind-transported dust (Bridges et al., 2010). Whatever their origin, it is now clear that the sedimentary rocks of Mars represent a new frontier for research. Mars science is in its golden era of exploration—the past decade of orbiter and landed missions has produced an extraordinary amount of new data relevant to the analysis of sediments and sedimentary rocks, and robust international programs exist for future missions. To help stimulate discussion of these data, the First International Conference on Mars Sedimentology and Stratigraphy was convened in El Paso, Texas, in April 2010. The contents of this white paper represent the most significant findings of the conference, with additional information provided by the coauthors, and focus on seven key questions for future investigation by the sedimentary geology community.

International audience; In this paper we present the findings of a COSPAR Mars Special Regions Colloquium held in Rome in 2007. We review and discuss the definition of Mars Special Regions, the physical parameters used to define Mars Special Regions, and physical features on Mars that can be interpreted as Mars Special Regions. We conclude that any region experiencing temperatures > -25 degrees C for a few hours a year and a water activity > 0.5 can potentially allow the replication of terrestrial microorganisms. Physical features on Mars that can be interpreted as meeting these conditions constitute a Mars Special Region. Based on current knowledge of the martian environment and the conservative nature of planetary protection, the following features constitute Mars Special regions: Gullies and bright streaks associated with them, pasted-on terrain, deep subsurface, dark streaks only on a case-by-case basis, others to be determined. The parameter definition and the associated list of physical features should be re-evaluated on a regular basis.

This paper provides a summary of the 2007 Mars Design Reference Architecture 5.0 (DRA 5.0) [1], which is the latest in a series of NASA Mars reference missions. It provides a vision of one potential approach to human Mars exploration, including how Constellation systems could be used. The strategy and example implementation concepts that are described here should not be viewed as constituting a formal plan for the human exploration of Mars, but rather provide a common framework for future planning of systems concepts, technology development, and operational testing as well as potential Mars robotic missions, research that is conducted on the International Space Station, and future potential lunar exploration missions. This summary of the Mars DRA 5.0 provides an overview of the overall mission approach, surface strategy and exploration goals, as well as the key systems and challenges for the first three concepts for human missions to Mars.1,2

Seeks to provide understanding of the challenges facing management development in South Africa in the next decade: a desperate shortage of managerial skills; a particular need for trained Black managers to fill the opportunities that are opening up. Describes management development techniques and programmes offered in South Africa, and the kinds of institutions and organizations that offer them. Suggests that, despite the need, surprisingly little Black management development has been accomplished, and what has been done has often not addressed the marginal position in which many Black managers find themselves, nor used effective techniques which adequately match local culture. Draws on the authors′ research, and personal work experience in South Africa, for recommendations for improving South African management development programmes in the 1990s.

A short incident describing a political influence attempt was given to 152 management level and professional employees. Subjects were then asked to complete short attitude scales pertaining to the characteristics of the actor and the incident. The experimental factorial design included three factors (1) sex of subject, (2) sex of influencing party, (3) sex of target of influence. The results suggest that males are more tolerant of political behavior than women. Subjects view political manipulators of their own sex more favorably than manipulators of the opposite sex. Subjects of both sexes are more tolerant of political behavior when the victim of the behavior is a member of the opposite sex rather than of their own sex. The results may suggest a growing inclination on the part of both genders to identify with members of their own sex as a meaningful coalition and react to organizational events in view of the implications to members of their own gender. Possible implications for research and intervention are suggested.

Each year thousands of American professors seeking a change ponder whether to take on the challenges of visiting teaching positions at universities in far-off, exotic, and foreboding places, from Uganda to Ecuador to Indonesia. However, there are few guidelines available to help an instructor anticipate the hurdles and challenges of teaching in developing or Third-World nations. This article provides a checklist and discussion on tips for preparing yourself for teaching abroad and for preparing for the culture of the host country. Overseas assignments can be very enriching. However, as expatriate business personnel have learned, successful overseas tours often are predicated on effective preparation for both the assignment and the cultural experience. And, family members need to be included in the decision and preparation process.

In October 2004, more than 130 terrestrial and planetary scientists met in Jackson Hole, WY, to discuss early Mars. The first billion years of martian geologic history is of particular interest because it is a period during which the planet was most active, after which a less dynamic period ensued that extends to the present day. The early activity left a fascinating geological record, which we are only beginning to unravel through direct observation and modeling. In considering this time period, questions outnumber answers, and one of the purposes of the meeting was to gather some of the best experts in the field to consider the current state of knowledge, ascertain which questions remain to be addressed, and identify the most promising approaches to addressing those questions. The purpose of this report is to document that discussion. Throughout the planet's first billion years, planetary-scale processes-including differentiation, hydrodynamic escape, volcanism, large impacts, erosion, and sedimentation-rapidly modified the atmosphere and crust. How did these processes operate, and what were their rates and interdependencies? The early environment was also characterized by both abundant liquid water and plentiful sources of energy, two of the most important conditions considered necessary for the origin of life. Where and when did the most habitable environments occur? Did life actually occupy them, and if so, has life persisted on Mars to the present? Our understanding of early Mars is critical to understanding how the planet we see today came to be.

In the not too distant future, NASA may consider sending a robotic mission to Mars to drill tens of meters below the surface to search for evidence of life. Mars science groups, including NASA's Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group (MEPAG), have repeatedly concluded that in situ scientific analyses of samples from significant depths below the surface are important for understanding Mars in general and for searching for evidence of past or present life in particular. Furthermore, there are several ongoing technology developments for relevant drills, the readiness of which seem promising for use by the second decade of this century. By accessing and analyzing material from tens of meters below the surface, in situ science investigations may help answer some important questions about Mars, in particular about whether life ever existed there. Drilling is a proven technique for terrestrial applications that appears viable for accessing Martian subsurface samples and bringing them to the surface for analysis by a variety of instruments. An end-to-end mission concept for a Deep Drill mission has been developed and appears feasible for launch in the next decade.

More than 650 scientists from 21 countries gathered in mid‐July at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) to debate and examine the status of our exploration of the Red Planet. Since the Seventh International Conference on Mars in 2007, seven Mars missions— Mars Odyssey, Mars Exploration Rovers (Spirit/Opportunity), Mars Express, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, Phoenix, and Mars Science Laboratory (Curiosity)—have been returning data, augmented by telescopic observations, studies of Martian meteorites, laboratory work, and modeling studies.