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Changes in metal redox in soils can exert strong controls on carbon mineralization but are difficult to measure in real time. Recently, potentiostatically poised electrodes (fixed-potential electrodes) have been demonstrated as promising for measuring the rate of oxidation and reduction at a specific reduction potential in situ in riparian soils but are yet untested in upland soils. Here for the first time, we explored the fine-scale temporal fluctuations of redox of both iron and manganese in response to environmental conditions. We used three-electrode systems with working electrodes fixed at 100 mV (vs. SHE) in 2019 and added 400 mV in 2020 at 50 cm and 70 cm in the valley floor soil of a headwater watershed at the Susquehanna Shale Hills Critical Zone Observatory (SSHCZO). Electrodes fixed at 100 mV mimic iron oxides and at 400 mV mimic manganese oxides, and real-time reduction and oxidation rates can be calculated from measured changes in the electric current over time. Alongside the electrodes, soil porewater chemistry, pCO2, pO2, groundwater level, and precipitation were measured. Results indicate that fixed-potential electrodes successfully detected temporally fine-scale fluctuations in metal redox state, which was confirmed by the coordinated datasets. Water table fluctuations at the electrode depth drove metal reduction, and rainfall events stimulated oxidation reactions in the vadose zone. For the first time in soils, we directly measured the frequency, period, and amplitude of oxidation and reduction events. All of these are key variables that control the biogeochemical impact of metal oxide redox in terrestrial systems. At the SSHCZO we observed multi-day reduction or oxidation events with a return interval of 5 – 10 days, controlled by precipitation frequency. Such measurements with fixed-potential electrodes hold promise for accurately exploring the fast-changing biogeochemical impacts of metal redox in upland soils where such reactions have been difficult to quantify.

This study explored the feasibility and acceptability of an experiential compassion-focused group intervention for mental health inpatient staff. Findings demonstrated that although participants found sessions enjoyable, and reported a number of benefits, the group attrition was high. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to explore issues related to group dropout. Thematic analysis highlighted overarching systemic challenges to attendance, and five key themes emerged: The Nature of the Ward; Slowing Down Is Not Allowed; It is Not in Our Nature; GuiltThreat; We Are Not Important. Clinical implications, limitations and practice recommendations to support group attendance are also addressed.

In many modern hospitals, resources are shared between patients who require immediate care, and must be dealt with as they arrive (emergency patients), and those whose care requirements are partly known to the hospital some time in advance (elective patients). Catering for these two types of patients is a challenging short-term operational decision-making problem, since some portion of each resource must be set aside for emergency patients when planning for the number and type of elective patients to admit. This paper shows how symbiotic simulation can help hospitals with important short-term operational decision making. We demonstrate how a symbiotic simulation model can be developed from an existing simulation model by adding the ability to load the state of the physical system at run-time and by making use of conditional length-of-stay distributions. The model is parameterised using 18 months of patient administrative data from an Anonymised General Hospital. Further, we propose a new Δ-Method that is suitable for validating a stochastic symbiotic simulation model. We demonstrate the benefit of our symbiotic simulation by showing how it can be used as an early warning system, and how additional patient-level information which might only become available after admission, can affect the predicted bed census.

CuO nanoparticles (CuO NPs) were demonstrated as a novel nanoenzyme, i.e., haloperoxidase mimic, which catalyzes the oxidation of halide ions to form reactive halogen species (RHS). Two functions of CuO NPs have been demonstrated in the work. First, RHS halogenate bacterial signaling molecules, thus preventing biofilm formation. Second, CuO is used in sensitive colorimetric assays for H2O2 and glucose.

In weathered bedrock aquifers, groundwater is stored in pores and fractures that open as rocks are exhumed and minerals interact with meteoric fluids. Little is known about this storage because geochemical and geophysical observations are limited to pits, boreholes, or outcrops or to inferences based on indirect measurements between these sites. We trained a rock physics model to borehole observations in a well-constrained ridge and valley landscape and then interpreted spatial variations in seismic refraction velocities. We discovered that P-wave velocities track where a porosity-generating reaction initiates in shale in three boreholes across the landscape. Specifically, velocities of 2.7 ± 0.2 km/s correspond with growth of porosity from dissolution of chlorite, the most reactive of the abundant minerals in the shale. In addition, sonic velocities are consistent with the presence of gas bubbles beneath the water table under valley and ridge. We attribute this gas largely to CO(2) produced by 1) microbial respiration in soils as meteoric waters recharge into the subsurface and 2) the coupled carbonate dissolution and pyrite oxidation at depth in the rock. Bubbles may nucleate below the water table because waters depressurize as they flow from ridge to valley and because pores have dilated as the deep rock has been exhumed by erosion. Many of these observations are likely to also describe the weathering and flow path patterns in other headwater landscapes. Such combined geophysical and geochemical observations will help constrain models predicting flow, storage, and reaction of groundwater in bedrock systems.

Current industrial livestock production has one of the highest consumptions of water, producing up to ten times more polluted (biological oxygen demand, BOD) wastewaters compared to domestic sewage. Additionally, livestock production grows yearly leading to an increase in the generation of wastewater that varies considerably in terms of organic content and microbial population. Therefore, suitable wastewater treatment methods are required to ensure the wastewater quality meets EU regulations before discharge. In the present study, a combined lab scale activated sludge-filtration-ozonation system was used to treat a pre-treated abattoir wastewater. A 24-h hydraulic retention time and a 13-day solid retention time were used for the activated sludge process, followed by filtration (4–7 μm) and using ozone as tertiary treatment. Average reductions of 93% and 98% were achieved for chemical oxygen demand (COD) and BOD, respectively, obtaining final values of 128 mg/L COD and 12 mg/L BOD. The total suspended solids (TSS) average reduction reached 99% in the same system, reducing the final value down to 3 mg/L. Furthermore, 98% reduction in phosphorus (P) and a complete inactivation of total coliforms (TC) was obtained after 17 min of ozonation. For total viable counts (TVC), a drastic reduction was observed after 30 min of ozonation (6 log inactivation) at an injected ozone dose of 71 mg/L. The reduction percentages reported in this study are higher than those previously reported in the literature. Overall, the combined process was sufficient to meet discharge requirements without further treatment for the measured parameters (COD, BOD, TSS, P, TC and TVC).

Fast and sensitive antigen detection is important in biomedical research and development. Despite, being invented 48 years ago, the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) remains one of the most successful and widely employed bioanalytical techniques in research and clinical diagnostics due to its reliability and simplistic design. Recently, nanotechnology has offered efficient signal reporting. In spite of some improvements in these systems, there are typically increased material costs involved and the need for expensive equipment or complicated chemical processes, thus negating any possible benefits over ELISA. Herein, we communicate a simple Cu-DNAzyme system for signal transduction of a CuO nanoparticle-labeled immunoassay. The reported immunoassay amplifies signal generation similar to traditional ELISA and is fast, simple, cost-effective, and sensitive, holding promise for biomedical applications and point-of-care testing.

The institution of the seminary was established by the sixteenth century Council of Trent. Seminaries were charged with the formation of men for the priesthood. The character of seminary education was largely unchanged until the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965). This article observes and comments upon the changes and developments over the past 50 years. The author reflects on his own experience. A recently published document of the Holy See insists on the necessity for priestly formation within a seminary community. This author argues in support of the seminary but also recognises the challenges facing those responsible for seminary formation.

BackgroundThere is a well-established link between area-level socioeconomic deprivation and psychiatric admission rates. Social capital has been proposed as a possible protective factor that may buffer economically deprived communities, but it may be disrupted in areas with high population turnover. This study aims to test whether population turnover, hereafter called churn, moderates the social gradient of psychiatric admissions.MethodsPopulation churn rates, low income rates and psychiatric admission rates for 1909 lower super output areas in Wales were analysed using Poisson generalised linear mixed-effects models. Additional analyses explored the impact of deprivation measured more generally and the potential confound of population density.ResultsPopulation churn moderated the association between socioeconomic deprivation and psychiatric admission rates, such that greater social gradients in admission rates were found in areas with greater churn. Economic deprivation and churn were also found to be independently positively associated with admission rates. These relationships remained significant when using a broader measure of deprivation and after adjusting for population density.ConclusionHigh churn appears to exacerbate the detrimental effects of economic deprivation on mental health as well as being a risk factor in its own right. Residential stability rates should be considered when designing and implementing policies which aim to understand, prevent and treat mental health problems in at-risk communities.

Background: Prolonged neurophysiological impairments have been demonstrated after brain injury utilizing tools such as auditory evoked response potentials. The objectivity and sensitivity of such tools can provide clinicians a unique perspective on patients with prolonged post concussive symptoms (PPCS), and help determine optimal management strategies. Limited research currently exists on evoked potentials and pediatric PPCS. Purpose: Illustrate the clinical utility of abnormal evoked potentials in adolescents with PPCS. Methods and Study Design: The study is a retrospective cross-sectional analysis of pediatric PPCS cases from 7/2018 to 7/2019 at a private concussion clinic in Tucson AZ. Patients were included if they had prolonged symptoms beyond 30 days from date of injury date, were 13-16 years old, and diagnosed with PPCS based on SCAT5 assessment and clinical evaluation. All patients with PPCS had moderate to severe clinical symptoms with limited academic and exertional tolerance. Patients were excluded if they had a history of learning disorders, seizure disorder, or complex concussions with a skull fracture or intracranial hemorrhage. Patients were tested using the standard oddball audio P300 EEG protocol. Measures extracted included P300 latency, P300 amplitude, and coherence frequency on mapping. The PPCS cohort (n=71) was then compared to age-matched references (n=73) obtained during baseline testing of non-injured athletes using the same protocol (and hardware) from a multitude of sites. Results: There was a significant correlation between PPCS and reduced P300 amplitude along with an increased coherence. The PPCS group had an average P300 amplitude of 13.7uV compared to 16.9uV in the reference group (p2σ, compared to the expected 3.1 connections in reference group >2 σ (pConclusions: Pediatric patients with PPCS showed decreased P300 amplitude and increased coherence on average compared to the reference group. Reduced voltages and/or increased coherence likely represent ongoing primary brain dysfunction, adaptability, and recovery. These findings suggest the need for ongoing care, and should guide a conservative care approach towards return to high-risk activities. Evoked potentials may be a critical tool to help identify primary neurologic dysfunction in PPCS and help guide management strategies. This tool may also aide in differentiating ongoing neurophysiologic recovery from commonly reported secondary psychosocial symptoms after PPCS. [Figure: see text]

Singlet oxygen (1O2), a widely used reactive oxygen species (ROS) in industry and biomedical applications, plays a fundamental role throughout nature. We report a novel method to generate 1O2selectively and efficiently through copper-based Fenton chemistry under circumneutral conditions enhanced by chloride as co-catalyst, with reactivity completely different than that observed in classical iron-based Fenton chemistry. The mechanism of its formation was elucidated through the kinetic studies of orthogonally reactive reporter molecules, i.e., singlet oxygen sensor green, 4-hydroxy-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine, and phenol, and selective ROS quenchers. This method selectively generates 1O2in situneither relying on photosensitization nor resulting in side reactions, and together with the mechanistic understanding of the Cu-Fenton reaction, not only opens new possibilities in many industries, such as organic synthesis and antimicrobial treatments, but also provides insight into Cu and H2O2containing chemical, environmental, and biological systems.

In this paper we detail the series of digital microelectronics testbed boards which have been developed to meet the requirements of the microelectronics undergraduate programmes at the University of Southampton. We discuss how our boards solve many of the issues with the digital testbeds used previously for the microelectronics programmes and those which are available on the market. The digital testbed solution described in this paper is modular, and comprises multiple boards which each perform a specific function. This modular design is compact and easily expandable, while being cost effective such that they can be given to students to use at home. The boards are well suited for use with modern digital components, and fit in well with teaching of microcontrollers, programmable logic, and discrete logic.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) is a progressive disease. Initial therapy begins with dietary and lifestyle modifications. However, as the disease progresses, glycemic control becomes more difficult to attain, often requiringor =1 oral antihyperglycemic medication (OAM), and finally the addition of insulin to the OAMs and insulin monotherapy.This study was designed to determine the effect of pioglitazone 30 mg plus insulin (PIO + INS) versus placebo plus insulin (PLB + INS) on glycemic control, the serum lipid profile, and selected cardiovascular risk factors in patients with type 2 DM whose disease was inadequately controlled with insulin therapy alone despite efforts to intensify such treatment.This was a 6-month, randomized, double-blind, prospective, multicenter, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study. Patients with type 2 DM and a glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA(1c)) valueor =7.5% who were using insulin (with or without OAMs) entered a 3-month insulin intensification phase to achieve blood glucose targets with insulin monotherapy. After insulin intensification, those patients with HbA(1c) valuesor =7.0% were randomized to PIO + INS or PLB + INS. The primary end point was the change in HbA(1c) from baseline. Cardiovascular risk markers (highly sensitive C-reactive protein [hs CRP] and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 [PAI-1]) were measured at baseline and end point.Of the 289 patients randomized to treatment (mean [SD] age, 58.9 [7.1] years; 164 women, 125 men), 142 received PIO + INS and 147 received PLB + INS. A total of 263 patients completed the study. After 6 months, PIO + INS reduced mean HbA(1c) (-0.69%; P0.002) and mean fasting plasma glucose ([FPG] -1.45 mmol/L; P0.002) from baseline. PLB + INS produced no significant changes in HbA(1c) or FPG. The between-treatment differences for HbA(1c) (-0.55%; P0.002) and FPG (-1.80 mmol/L; P0.002) occurred despite a reduction of insulin dose in the PIO + INS group from baseline (-0.16 U/d . kg; P0.002). Significant between-group differences were observed for high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (0.13 mM; P0.002), triglycerides (ratio of geometric mean [PIO/PLB], 0.871; P0.01), atherogenic index of plasma (-0.11; P0.002), PAI-1 (-5.10 U/mL; P0.001), and hs CRP (-1.47 mg/L; P0.05). The rate of clinical and biochemical hypoglycemia (blood glucose2.8 mmol/L) did not differ statistically between treatment groups, but reported incidences of subjective hypoglycemia occurred more often with PIO + INS than with PLB + INS (90 vs 75; P0.05). Edema was more common with PIO + INS than with PLB + INS (20 vs 5 instances, respectively), as was gain (mean [SEM]) in body weight (4.05 [4.03] vs 0.20 [2.92] kg, respectively).Adding pioglitazone to insulin in these study patients with type 2 DM whose disease was inadequately controlled with insulin monotherapy further improved their glycemic control.

Over the last decade the culture of physical exercise has changed. While elite athletes are training to ever more rigorous schedules, our middle aged sedentary population, no doubt seeing the writing on the wall, are hurrying to sign up for the fashionable, local fitness centres. When talking about athletes' hearts, we must distinguish between elite athletes, recreational sports men and women, non-athletes who wish to maintain cardiovascular fitness, and athletic patients with known cardiovascular disease. This article is mainly about athletes with serious sporting ambitions at club or higher level, who train most days for more than one hour. I will make it clear when I am referring to other types of athletes. A regular training programme causes favourable changes in skeletal muscle performance (the realm of the sports physiologist) and two clear cut cardiovascular effects—namely, enlargement of the heart and a slow pulse rate at rest. These are the components of a characteristic clinical picture known as the “athlete's heart”.1 Athletes, as a group, tend to be somewhat introspective about their health and will frequently consult doctors complaining of palpitations, dizziness, fatigue, chest pain, and undue dyspnoea. Physical examination may reveal some unusual signs, which will do little to reassure the doctor, already aware of widely publicised high profile cases of sudden death in association with sporting activity. The finding of an apparently abnormal ECG will cause further anxiety. A knowledge of the characteristic features of the athlete's heart is therefore important if the patient is to be advised wisely.2 Regular training causes the heart to enlarge. This is the result of a combination of left ventricular cavity enlargement (dilatation) and increased wall thickness (hypertrophy). The stimuli and processes involved are complex but appear to be akin to the normal growth of the heart in childhood.3 …

Relaxation and imagery techniques have been widely used among patients with chronic physical illnesses other than end stage renal failure (ESRF). Case studies and some controlled studies suggest that relaxation and imagery techniques can be successfully used with hemodialysis patients to improve their adjustment. Nonetheless, randomized controlled studies are needed to systematically examine this effect.The present study examined the effect of a specific visual imagery technique on adjustment and quality of life in a sample of 153 hemodialysis patients. Control procedures included an active control and a no-treatment control. The former consisted of relaxation training and general imagery techniques. Outcome variables included beliefs about hemodialysis treatment, ways of evaluating life, emotional adjustment, and quality of life. The ESRF Beliefs Questionnaire, the Life Evaluation Questionnaire for Hemodialysis Patients, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, the Ladder Scale, and 2 SF-36 summary scales were used to measure these outcome variables.The findings show that the specific imagery intervention did not have an effect on emotional adjustment or quality of life, either post-treatment or at follow-up; however, the rate of patient compliance with the interventions was moderately high and patients reported that they were satisfied with the intervention procedures.The present study is the first randomized controlled intervention study of the effects of relaxation and imagery on adjustment in hemodialysis patients. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for future studies as well as their limitations.

Fish oils have shown beneficial effects on various parameters in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the same effects can be demonstrated with a low dose of fish oil concentrate (FOC).Thirty-nine patients were studied and divided into two groups. Twenty were given 10 g fish oil (group A) and 19 were given 10 g placebo Italian olive oil (group B).Weekly anginal attacks (AA), weekly glyceryl trinitrate consumption (GTN), exercise tolerance time (ETT), serum triglycerides (ST), platelet aggregation ratio (PAR), and β- thromboglobulin were measured at eight and twelve weeks after start of treatment.1. The number of anginal attacks recorded by both groups decreased by 41% in group A reaching statistical significance (P < 0.05). No change was observed in group B.2. GTN consumption decreased in group A (P < 0.05) with no significant change in group B (P: ns).3. ETT increased significantly in group A eight and twelve weeks after start of treatment (20.6% P < 0.01, 22.6% P < 0.01). A smaller but insignificant increase was observed in group B (P: ns).4. ST decreased significantly in group A by 22% eight weeks after start of treatment (P < 0.01) and to a lesser degree (11%) twelve weeks after start of treatment (P: ns). In group B, ST slightly increased (P: ns). (continued on next page)5. No statistically significant change was observed in either group in regard to PAR and β-thromboglobulin (P: ns).These observations suggest that dietary supplementation with a low dose of FOC may have beneficial effects on the clinical status of patients with CAD. It also seems that this low dose has no impact on platelet function.

Reconstruction of positron emission tomography(PET)images with good quantitative and qualitative resolution is a difficult problem. Mathematically the problem is ill-posed, and a regularization of the reconstructionsolution is necessary. Such constraints range from simply smoothing the data to the use of elaborate models employed within a Bayesian framework. The goal of optimum resolution, however, is typically not compatible with any of these schemes. This thesis presents new methods for dealing with the projection data on an anisotropic basis. This is done in order to compromise the need for regularization and the drive toward better resolutions. An appropriate resolution is chosen in accordance to either the quality of the projection data (based on local estimates of noise), or known regions of interest (taken, for example, from associated anatomical images). As such it addresses the issues of noise artifact whilst avoiding any unnecessary loss in resolution. A second key element is the development of a Bayesian algorithm to improve resolution in order to address the so-called partial volume effect. Magnetic resonance imaging(MRI) data provides significant information about the expected distribution of radioactivity in the brain. Using this explicit information, corrections to the PETimage can be made in a quantitative manner, but one must be cautious in its application. The thesis describes how to incorporate MRI data into the reconstruction process of the PETimage in an adaptive manner. The adaptational nature of the process is driven solely by good heuristics designed to avoid both an overbiased usage of the a priori information and any assumptions made on the [supposed] homogeneous characteristic of the activity distribution.

Lipid metabolism and the actions of valproic acid, a human teratogen, have been studied in the organogenesis-stage rat conceptus, using whole embryo culture techniques. All major lipid classes, particularly phospholipids, cholesterol and triacylglycerols, were synthesized de novo from acetate by the conceptus. Oleic acid and glucose were also incorporated into complex lipids. The pattern of lipid biosynthesis was dependent on the developmental stage of the conceptus. Despite this lipid biosynthetic activity, cholesterol uptake experiments suggested that the rat conceptus derives most of its required lipid from exogenous sources. Valproic acid stimulated de novo synthesis of cholesterol, and concomitantly reduced cholesterol esterification, in the yolk sac during an eight hour exposure. These effects were also induced by butyric acid, which produces valproic acid-like dysmorphologies in vitro, but not by the non-teratogen valpromide. Some observations suggested that the initial action was inhibition of cholesterol uptake at the yolk sac. Subsequent studies disproved this hypothesis and also suggested that the increased levels of newly synthesized cholesterol were not responsible, per se, for the valproic acid teratogenicity. The specific actions of valproic acid on yolk sac cholesterol synthesis and esterification were, nevertheless, dose-dependent in culture, and were also induced in conceptuses exposed to valproic acid in utero. This contrasts with several other major biochemical pathways, previously studied in the conceptus, which are not affected by valproic acid. It is likely, therefore, that these changes in lipid metabolism are related to the initial teratogenic insult of valproic acid.

Transformation of computer graphics images to the RS170A television format by a new digital video standards conversion technique is described. Nominal resolution of incoming images is 1280x1024 pixels. Output image resolution is 762x483 pixels. To avoid aliasing effects, images are low-pass filtered prior to resampling in the horizontal and vertical directions. A range of '1000-line' images with different dimensions and timing parameters may be accommodated by adjustment of stored coefficients through the interactive user interface.

This chapter discusses the field of building and presents possible developments that affect both building and architectural design. Building as an activity defined in time and space has three main phases: decision and design, making and forming, and maintaining and replacing. All three phases need to be considered by the architect as he designs. The main task of the architect is to offer expert guidance at the time of decision and design. In architecture, a balanced approach to the problems of stating human needs and requirements, the selection of materials and techniques of building, and deciding the policy for building maintenance and eventual replacement is needed. Traditional buildings can be improved by the application of scientific knowledge to their design and construction. Non-conventional building techniques are under constant development from the pressure of a more rational and industrialized approach to mass building problems.

Publisher Summary This chapter provides an overview of the architectural function. The form of a work of architecture is not only determined by nature of the human institution housed but also by the kind of knowledge and skill that is available, through the design team, and by the character, and absolute amounts available, of capital in the form of finance, labor, material, craft and industrial skill, and organization. Works of architecture reflect the state of a particular people at a particular time, of their understanding of their world through science, art, and religion; the nature of their institutions; and their ability to organize the use of certain technologists. In exploring architecture, learning involves two linked processes—duplication and discovery. Duplication involves the study of what is already factually known, remembering and imitating. The method of discovery is concerned with the ways in which the learner arrives at knowledge or skills.

Publisher Summary This chapter provides an overview on the structure of architectural ideas. Architecture is to be differentiated from nearly all other design activity in which the architect starts off not by studying the ways to achieve his result, nor by concerning himself with what result will be his aim, but by trying to decide what the principle objectives of his design should be. A discussion of the thought processes that takes place as architecture makes designs is necessarily based upon the acceptance by writer and reader of a particular mode of operation as a reference point and guide. If the architectural designer is to evolve a discipline, then he must have some understanding of the present state of knowledge of how human minds work. Discipline in design work is the product of amalgamation of theory and experience. The experience is of two kinds: professional and personal.

This chapter provides an overview on the methods in architectural design. The design method is approached using the structure of architectural ideas and with the help of architectural intention. In architectural design, the design process stems from three philosophies: that of the role and purpose of architecture, that of the nature of mental processes and that of experience of architecture. Studies and intelligence tests, operated on the basis of “the structure of the intellect” model, lead to the recognition of four kinds of content, six kinds of product and five kinds of operation. A path of design work is uncovered that if followed appears to lead to apt solutions and to the production of works that satisfy both immediate criteria and the seven principles. The production of architecture and the functioning of architectural works are reciprocating processes. A process is not determined solely by reference to its origins, nor by its present state, but by its future states.

This chapter discusses the problem of inventing the future. One cannot design and plan for the future without having an understanding of how to go about inventing alternative futures. This is a specialized subject, and a fast-growing field, both in its theory and in the application of technique that bring wider ranges of factual data within the compass of planners and designers. Designers once in the grip of a future live by it and it becomes a more powerful motive for action for them than any actual experience of the present. Such futures always need to be subjected to cross-questioning and revision. The chapter presents 12 ways of inventing the future that form a useful checklist upon any invented futures and the way they bear upon architectural invention and environment planning.

This chapter discusses architecture and community. The architectural design process is a problem-solving process and a design-making process. The ideas that permeate the development plans of the new countries are the main social and political ideas. They reflect ideals that require economic expansion for their implementation. The design program for both rural and metropolitan settlements in the context of rapid development is similar. Both involve vast number of people and large areas of land. The concept of the developing region is of value throughout the development process. It provides a frame of reference within which social, economic, and physical events are grasped together, integrated in the mind, and in planning the evolution and development of a region's life. The design of new settlement areas within an urbanizing region forms the opposite end of the architectural spectrum from that of extending and re-relating the existing village. The ineffectiveness of physical planning work stems from the failure to see that planning is a process concerned with preparing for the future.