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The file attached to this record is the author's final peer reviewed version Many investigative interviews with children who report that they have been victims of crime are carried out by one interviewer. Some interviews, however, may involve more than one interviewer. There has been little research examining the impact upon children’s reports when more than one interviewer (or adult) is present. Over the course of two experimental studies, involving 375 children in total, the effects that the number of adults (present in such interviews) had on children’s recall were investigated. It was found that the number of the adults present during an interview had an effect on the quality and quantity of the information children provided. When children were interviewed by a single interviewer, with no-one else present, the children provided lengthier and more accurate accounts, in comparison to when children were interviewed by an interviewer in the presence of either one or two additional adults. These findings have implications for the conduct of forensic interviews, especially in those countries where several adults are present in forensic interviews.

The collection of accurate, detailed, and timely intelligence buttresses critical law enforcement decision-making. However, the quality and quantity of the intelligence gathered relies heavily upon the interviewing techniques that are used to retrieve it. The perceptions of intelligence practitioners are key to developing an understanding of practices concerning intelligence collection. Yet, to date, no research has been undertaken that explores the United Kingdom’s Source Handlers’ perceptions of the interviewing processes employed with informants. The present study interviewed 24 Source Handlers from Counter Terrorism Dedicated Source Units in the United Kingdom. Five themes emerged from the interviews, (i) a comparison between interviewing and debriefing; (ii) the PEACE model in intelligence interviews; (iii) the importance of effective communication; (iv) Source Handlers’ use of cognitive retrieval techniques; and, (v) Source Handler interview training. The perceived commonalities between interviewing and debriefing provided support for the transferability of investigative interviewing research and practices into the collection of Human Intelligence (HUMINT), reiterating themes (ii), (iii), and (iv). Finally, participants highlighted a need for additional training concerning intelligence gathering techniques, as police officers who are responsible for gathering HUMINT could benefit from further professional development based on investigative interviewing research and professional practices.

Rapport is an integral part of interviewing, viewed as fundamental to the success of intelligence elicitation. One collection capability is human intelligence (HUMINT), the discipline charged with eliciting intelligence through interactions with human sources, such as covert human intelligence sources (CHIS). To date, research has yet to explore the perceptions and experiences of intelligence operatives responsible for gathering HUMINT within England and Wales. The present study consisted of structured interviews with police source handlers (N = 24). Rapport was perceived as essential, especially for maximising the opportunity for intelligence elicitation. Participants provided a range of rapport strategies while highlighting the importance of establishing, and maintaining, rapport. The majority of participants believed rapport could be trained to some degree. Thus, rapport was not viewed exclusively as a natural skill. However, participants commonly perceived some natural attributes are required to build rapport that can be refined and developed through training and experience.

The file attached to this record is the author's final peer reviewed version. The Publisher's final version can be found by following the DOI link. On leaving the EU, changes to the UK’s immigration system meant that low-skilled workers from overseas were largely prohibited from entering the UK. Since industries such as Agri-food and construction have been dependent on low-skilled migrant labor, the present study examined whether there would be increased risks of labor exploitation. Interviews conducted with 43 senior industry representatives revealed problems already being experienced recruiting labor, that were expected to worsen. Participants believed that the labor exploitation would increase, especially further down the supply chain, only compounded by impact of Covid-19, which some participants stated had prompted neglect of due diligence. In searching for practicable solutions, participants saw the new immigration rules as opportunities to re-examine business practices to appeal more to British workers through, say, providing better pay. Such aspirations are thought unlikely, when considering the various factors that create downward cost pressures upon consumers. Similarly, industry responses in developing new technologies to overcome labor shortfalls seem still some years away from realisation. These conditions, together, suggest there is a continuing and pressing demand for cheap labor, particularly from overseas, which is only being partially addressed by the current seasonal visa schemes. Accordingly, risks of increased labor exploitation remain very real.

Interviews with suspects of crime are an important element of police investigations. They can be crucial in helping establish what happened and may well provide evidence that enables the resolution of the criminal investigation. If the police gain admissions from suspects of wrongdoing this might, on the face of it, reinforce the belief that they were right to suspect them. However, a reliance on confessions as the single or major influence in determining guilt has been found to be mis-placed. Several countries (e.g., Norway, USA, and the UK) report cases where confessions have been made to the police, and people have been convicted of crimes, only to find later that those convictions have to be overturned in light of new evidence (including that which led to the conviction of the actual perpetrator). Such events have led us to rightly question the purpose of police interrogations with suspects. They have also prompted inquiry as to whether the pursuit of confessions in such interviews is appropriate and whether the police’s role is to search for the truth, including that where the outcome of the investigation may well suggest that a person is innocent. In this chapter, we examine once such country (England and Wales), where interrogations with suspects were once viewed primarily as opportunities to gain confessions from suspects. We detail an approach, investigative interviewing, that has led to such confessions being considered as less important to the resolution of criminal investigations, and where miscarriages of justice caused by unethical and coercive interviewing techniques (known to elicit false confessions) to be almost consigned to history (Poyser, Nurse & Milne, 2018).

In the context of interpreter-assisted police interviews (IAPIs) it is essential for both police officers and interpreters to maintain impartiality at all times. However, there are numerous obstacles on the way towards achieving this fundamental goal. The present study examines whether and how the different conflicts in communication are constructed and controlled within the different phases of police interviews, using a self-administered questionnaire that explores the perceptions of police officers and interpreters. Three areas of conflict pertinent to impartiality were identified: role, trust and emotion. The differing assumptions about the roles of police officers and interpreters, and the respective differing expectations, appear to create barriers in the achievement of trust and in the working relationship as a whole, which may well affect the aim of IAPIs (i.e. to gather reliable information) and alter the interview outcomes. In addition, both police officers and interpreters have strong emotional experiences during IAPIs; however, neither group appear to make conscious efforts to engage in coping strategies.

The file attached to this record is the author's final peer reviewed version. The Publisher's final version can be found by following the DOI link. One of the current and visible controversies in the UK policing that challenges the heart and foundation of the principle of law is arguably the apparent disproportionate use of stop and search powers involving ethnic minority communities. Differential exposure to certain types of suspected offenders can lead to the development of cognitive scripts that operate as stereotypes which may play a role in informing suspicions concerning police stops and searches. Focussing on whether police officers use (any) negative stereotypes to inform suspicions when conducting stops and searches. The present study examined more than 2,100 stop and search records held by a police force in England, as well as conducting 20 semi-structured interviews with frontline serving police officers from the same force. It was found that the use of stop and search powers is consistent with: (i) the use of stereotypes with respect to age, appearance, and social class; and (ii) the disproportionate recorded use of stop and search powers involving BAME communities. The implications of these findings are discussed.

A growing body of research suggests that empathy plays a major role in establishing and maintaining rapport during police interviews. The benefits of rapport include not only increased cooperation from interviewees, but also gaining more accurate investigation-relevant information. However, there still is no universally agreed-upon definition and very little research on operationalizing empathy, especially within investigative interviewing. The present study analyzed police interviewers' self-reports regarding their (a) training and methods employed during interviews, (b) application of empathy in interviews, and (c) definitions/understanding of empathy. It was found that officers in all seven participating countries varied within each country in their use of accusatory or information-gathering interview styles. The majority of participants in each country claimed to employ empathy in their interviews with suspects, yet they varied regarding the definitions they provided. In no country was empathy defined as having aspects that may not be conducive to investigative interviewing.

The file attached to this record is the author's final peer reviewed version. The Publisher's final version can be found by following the DOI link. One of the current and visible controversies in the UK policing that challenges the heart and foundation of the principle of law is arguably the apparent disproportionate use of stop and search powers involving ethnic minority communities. Differential exposure to the police to certain types of suspected offenders has been found in prior research to lead to the development of cognitive scripts that operate as stereotypes which may play a role in informing suspicions concerning police stops and searches. Focussing on whether police officers use negative stereotypes to inform suspicions when conducting stops and searches, the present study examined more than 2,100 stop and search records held by a police force in England, as well as conducting 20 semi-structured interviews with frontline serving police officers from the same force. It was found that the use of stop and search powers is consistent with (i) the use of stereotypes with respect to age, appearance, and social class; and (ii) the disproportionate recorded use of stop and search powers involving Black, Asian and Mixed communities. The implications of these findings are discussed.

iStock/guenterguniThe early months of 2018 marked the fourth winter in a row in which Arctic temperatures soared, boosted by a February heat wave over the Arctic Ocean. Cape Morris Jesup, Greenland...

The file attached to this record is the author's final peer reviewed version. The Publisher's final version can be found by following the DOI link. The present study explores police violence during the riots in London and Gezi Park protests in Istanbul. This study puts forth that the rise of social injustice in the UK and the erosion of plural democracy in Turkey clarify the paradox of state intervention because the two states prioritized rapid repression of uprising without consolidating public trust and social justice in the society. This comparative study reveals that the liberal and non-religious elements of the capitalist ruling system in the UK contain similar fractions of state repression when compared to the authoritarian and religious elements of the capitalist ruling system in Turkey. The authors conclude that police violence endures the social control of dissident communities while it maintains the sustainability of different capitalist ruling systems in the periods of social unrest.

The author's final peer reviewed version can be found by following the URI. The Publisher's final version can be found by following the DOI link. Self-evaluation of one’s own performance has been found in prior research to be an enabler of professional development. The task of evaluation is also a core component of a model of the investigative interviewing of victims, witnesses and suspects, being increasingly used throughout the world. However, it remains the case that there has been little research as to how practitioners approach the task itself. The present study examined the topic through the lens of observing how effectively 30 real-life investigators in the UK undertook evaluation of their interviews, representing almost the entire investigative frontline workforce of a small law enforcement agency in this country. Using an established scale of measurement, both investigators’ and an expert’s ratings of the same sample of interviews were compared across a range of tasks and behaviours. It was found that in almost all the assessed behaviours, requiring of the investigators to provide a self-rating, their scores tended to significantly outstrip those applied to the sample by the expert. Reasons are explored for the investigators’ overstated assessments. Implications for practice are then discussed.

[EN]For security and justice professionals (e.g., police officers, lawyers, judges), the thousands of peer-reviewed articles on nonverbal communication represent important sources of knowledge. However, despite the scope of the scientific work carried out on this subject, professionals can turn to programs, methods, and approaches that fail to reflect the state of science. The objective of this article is to examine (i) concepts of nonverbal communication conveyed by these programs, methods, and approaches, but also (ii) the consequences of their use (e.g., on the life or liberty of individuals). To achieve this objective, we describe the scope of scientific research on nonverbal communication. A program (SPOT; Screening of Passengers by Observation Techniques), a method (the BAI; Behavior Analysis Interview) and an approach (synergology) that each run counter to the state of science are examined. Finally, we outline five hypotheses to explain why some organizations in the fields of security and justice are turning to pseudoscience and pseudoscientific techniques. We conclude the article by inviting these organizations to work with the international community of scholars who have scientific expertise in nonverbal communication and lie (and truth) detection to implement evidence-based practices., [ES]Para los profesionales de la seguridad y la justicia (policías, abogados, jueces), los miles de artículos revisados por pares sobre comunicación no verbal representan fuentes importantes de conocimiento. Sin embargo, a pesar del alcance del trabajo científico realizado sobre este tema, los profesionales pueden recurrir a programas, métodos y enfoques que no reflejan el estado real de la ciencia. El objetivo de este artículo es examinar (i) los conceptos de comunicación no verbal transmitidos por estos programas, métodos y enfoques, pero también (ii) las consecuencias de su uso (por ejemplo, sobre la vida o la libertad de las personas). Para lograr estos objetivos, describimos el alcance de la investigación científica sobre la comunicación no verbal. Se examina un programa (SPOT: Evaluación de pasajeros mediante técnicas de observación), un método (BAI: Entrevista de análisis de conducta) y un enfoque (sinergología) que contradicen el estado de la ciencia. Finalmente, presentamos cinco hipótesis para explicar por qué algunas organizaciones en los campos de la seguridad y la justicia están recurriendo a la pseudociencia y a las técnicas pseudocientíficas. Concluimos el artículo invitando a estas organizaciones a trabajar con la comunidad académica internacional especializada en la investigación sobre comunicación no verbal y detección de mentiras (y verdad) para implementar prácticas basadas en la evidencia.

The file attached to this record is the author's final peer reviewed version. The Publisher's final version can be found by following the DOI link. Human Trafficking (HT) is considered as one of the most complex crimes to investigate. However, to date, little research has been conducted concerning what occurs during criminal investigations of HT. The present study, through interviewing 21 highly experienced and senior professionals from law enforcement agencies and governmental bodies in the UK, conceptualizes HT investigations under a common framework that underpins a model for the investigation of these crimes. Data from these narratives reveals that a total number of 22 investigative actions are commonly taken throughout the investigative process, following an apparent sequential route. While participants disagreed as to when/how to initiate and conclude an investigation, absolute agreement existed when considering multi-agency collaboration, tactical advice and support, and intelligence sharing (as core elements in HT criminal investigations). Such data enables both academic and practitioner communities to better identify what are effective investigation actions when these crimes are investigated.

The file attached to this record is the author's final peer reviewed version. The Publisher's final version can be found by following the DOI link. The interviewing of suspects is an important element in the investigation of crime. However, studies concerning actual performance of investigators when undertaking such interviews remain sparse. Nevertheless, in England and Wales, since the introduction of a prescribed framework over twenty years ago, field studies have generally shown an improvement in interviewing performance, notwithstanding ongoing concerns largely relating to more demanding aspects (such as building/maintaining rapport, intermittent summarising, and the logical development of topics). Using a sample of 70 real-life interviews, the present study examined questioning and various evidence disclosure strategies, examining their relationships between interview skills and interview outcomes. It was found that when evidence was disclosed gradually (but revealed later) interviews were generally both more skilled and involved the gaining of comprehensive accounts, whereas when evidence was disclosed either early or very late, interviews were found to be both less skilled and less likely to involve this outcome. These findings contribute toward an increased research base for the prescribed framework.

The file attached to this record is the author's final peer reviewed version. The Publisher's final version can be found by following the DOI link. This article provides an analysis of the ‘closure phase’ of investigative interviews with children reporting their being victim of alleged sexual offenses. Our focus is on how interviewers ask witness if they would like to add more to what has been said or whether they have any questions, as recommended by best practice guidelines. The data set comprises twenty-seven videotaped interviews conducted by one UK Constabulary. Using Conversation Analysis, we show how the delivery of the additional business question may be a barrier to interviewees proffering additional business. We also outline facilitative strategies that promote engagement and encourage participants’ contributions.

open access article Recent research suggests that the police are aware of the general trends in street crime and, from such awareness, tend to form impressions of the likelihood that persons belonging to various racial groups will commit certain types of crimes (e.g. drugs-related crimes). Such perceptions may lead to the police undertaking racial profiling which has the effect of creating a cycle of profiling of suspected offenders, regardless of the accuracy of these perceptions. As such, these cycles of profiling are results of negative stereotypes. The present study involved semi-structured interviews with serving police officers in England, during which the same scenario was put to each of them in turn, only differing in the name of the suspect. We employed an innovative methodological technique, crisp-set qualitative comparative analysis (csQCA), which enabled us to identify the causal relationship between variables (i.e. racial stereotypes) and associated outcomes of investigations. As a result, we found two pathways to police officers’ investigative decision-making. Both pathways indicated that any negative stereotypes based on suspect’s group membership may well indeed influence the officers’ investigative decision-making, quite possibly affecting outcomes of criminal investigations. Implications for investigative practice are discussed.

This article examines how police officers ostensibly reveal personal information about themselves in investigative interviews with children reporting their being victim of alleged sexual offenses. We identify two practices of personalization. First, we show how, during the opening phase of interviews, officers engage in clear, unambiguous self-disclosure and how these self-disclosures are designed to elicit expressions of affiliation from witnesses. Second, we identify instances of self-deprecating self-reference as in ‘I’m going deaf that's all’. These self-references are delivered to manage trouble responsibility in environments of repair. We show how they manage the conflicting demands of rapport building and the requirement to make interviewees feel as if they are being listened to and understood, on the one hand, and the need for effective evidence gathering, on the other. The present study extends understanding of how officers personalize the investigative interview, as recommended by best practice guidelines.

The file attached to this record is the author's final peer reviewed version. The Publisher's final version can be found by following the DOI link. Witnesses play a key role in criminal investigations. Research in estimator variables has aided criminal justice practitioners to estimate, post hoc, the likelihood of obtaining accurate testimony from a specific witness. Nonetheless, only a few studies have examined how violence and personality influence memory. The present study examines both variables with a student sample (N D 53). Participants were randomly divided between those who viewed a crime involving physical violence (n D 24) and those who watched an event that did not include physical violence (n D 29). Results found that physical violence increased the quantity of information recalled, and Honesty personality domain was positively correlated with memory performance. Nonetheless, the relationship between personality domains and memory performance appeared to be influenced and modified by the presence of physical violence. Under violent conditions personality domains of Emotionality and Openness appeared to be related with decreased memory accuracy, whereas Contentiousness appeared to be related with increased memory accuracy. This study enables a clearer picture to emerge of the effect that violence and personality have on memory and seeds the idea that claiming linear relationships between estimator variables and memory may be over-simplistic as variables appeared to be related among them when influencing eyewitness memory

Characterization of hydraulic conductivity (K) in aquifers is critical for evaluation, management, and remediation of groundwater resources. While estimates of K have been traditionally obtained using hydraulic tests over discrete intervals in wells, geophysical measurements are emerging as an alternative way to estimate this parameter. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logging, a technology once largely applied to characterization of deep consolidated rock petroleum reservoirs, is beginning to see use in near-surface unconsolidated aquifers. Using a well-known rock physics relationship-the Schlumberger Doll Research (SDR) equation--K and porosity can be estimated from NMR water content and relaxation time. Calibration of SDR parameters is necessary for this transformation because NMR relaxation properties are, in part, a function of magnetic mineralization and pore space geometry, which are locally variable quantities. Here, we present a statistically based method for calibrating SDR parameters that establishes a range for the estimated parameters and simultaneously estimates the uncertainty of the resulting K values. We used co-located logging NMR and direct K measurements in an unconsolidated fluvial aquifer in Lawrence, Kansas, USA to demonstrate that K can be estimated using logging NMR to a similar level of uncertainty as with traditional direct hydraulic measurements in unconsolidated sediments under field conditions. Results of this study provide a benchmark for future calibrations of NMR to obtain K in unconsolidated sediments and suggest a method for evaluating uncertainty in both K and SDR parameter values.

\ud In England and Wales, the ‘war on terror’ has been argued to impact adversely on existing race relations policies. New legislation (such as wide discretionary powers of stop and search and arrest under the Terrorism Act (TA) 2000, the extension of pre-charge detention of 28 days (TA 2006), and the use of control orders to detain without trial), policing, and counter-terrorism measures may cast Muslims, as the ‘enemy within’. The current research concerns real-life Asian Muslim suspects’ perceptions and experiences of police interviewing practices in England. This study involves semi-structured interviews with twenty-two people who had previously been interviewed as suspects throughout England. Around two-thirds of participants reported perceiving the demonstration of various stereotyping by police officers during interviews, half of whom indicated that the interviewers demonstrated racial/religious stereotypes via discriminatory behaviour. Given the potential and serious consequences of such racial/religious stereotypes and discriminatory behavior, further training of police officers seems necessary to improve both interviewing performance and community cohesion.

Open access article. The file attached to this record is the author's final peer reviewed version. The Publisher's final version can be found by following the DOI link Preparation and planning has been argued to be vitally important as to how effectively investigators undertake their interviews with suspects. Yet, it has also been found in previous research that investigators admit that they plan only occasionally, often attributing insufficient time as a reason for not undertaking the task. Employing a novel research paradigm that utilised theoretical foundations concerning planning, the present study explored empirically 95 South Korean financial crime investigators’ views, using a selfadministered questionnaire. With the use of secondgeneration statistical modelling, an understanding was developed of the relative relationships between various concepts (which had themselves emerged from an established theoretical framework of planning that had been further extended to accommodate the context of the present study). The study found that perceived time pressures actually showed a very low association with interview planning. Rather, investigators’ self-belief as to their own capability alongside workplace culture was each found to have stronger associations with investigators’ intentions to plan for their interviews. As such, we argue that there should be more focus on improving occupational culture relating to interview planning, while developing training programs that identify, evaluate, and enhance investigators’ planning skills. Implications for practice are therefore discussed.

If police interviewers’ hold negative feelings towards certain groups, this may affect how they interview them (either as victims, witnesses or suspects) in that they may not obtain reliable accounts, being the aim of such interviews. The Minhas Investigative Interviewing Prejudicial Stereotyping Scale (MIIPSS) has been developed to assess the level of any investigative interviewers’ prejudicial stereotyping towards suspects. The current exploratory study involved semi-structured interviews with twenty people, who had previously been interviewed as suspects in England and also eight very experienced lawyers. Both their views were measured using the MIIPSS before being subjected to a Guttman analysis. Statistical analyses showed that MIIPSS satisfies the criteria for classification as a valid unidimensional and cumulative scale. Therefore, researchers could use MIIPSS as a tool to measure prejudicial stereotyping in investigative interviews. Interviewers could also use MIIPSS to monitor their own attitudes towards certain groups or individuals suspected of different types of crimes.

The file attached to this record is the author's final peer reviewed version. The Publisher's final version can be found by following the DOI link The research base concerning interviews with suspects remains to be comprehensively developed. For example, the extant literature provides differing views regarding how best to undertake the important interview task of disclosing evidence. In the current study, using a self-report questionnaire, 224 investigators based in England and Wales were asked as to their own preferred methods. Most respondents advocated a gradual method of disclosing evidence, stating that this approach would better reveal inconsistencies and obtain a complete version of events (similar to the reasoning of those who preferred disclosing evidence later). Those who advocated revealing evidence early stated this approach would more likely elicit confessions. Several respondents would not commit to one single method, arguing that their chosen strategy was contextually dependent. The study’s findings suggest that it remains arguable as to whether there is one best approach to evidence disclosure and/or whether particular circumstances should influence interviewing strategies.

Whilst earlier studies of interviews with suspects have tended to focus upon the causes of false confessions, few have considered how to overcome false denials and obtain true confessions. The present study of 85 interviews with suspects of benefit fraud examined interviewer skill levels of tactics and attitudes (and the extent of their usage and presence) along with measuring any associated movement made towards confession. The study also examined whether or not the weight of evidence, found in prior studies to be a key factor in confessions, played a role when suspects made admissions to wrongdoing. It was found that confessions more likely occurred when skilful interviewer displays of certain tactics and attitudes were increasingly demonstrated, many of which are recommended by the PEACE interviewing framework, developed in England and Wales, whereas the weight of evidence alone was not an influential factor.

Previous studies into the quality of investigating interviewing of suspects conducted in criminal investigations in England and Wales have almost exclusively focused on the skills and tactics employed by interviewing officers during interviews. However, interviewing officers are trained in an interviewing framework that includes the importance of evaluating interviews as a means of improving skills. In light of the scarcity of research concerning the evaluation task, this study examined perceptions of benefit fraud investigation personnel. A questionnaire was answered by 114 respondents including investigators, investigation managers, investigation trainers, and investigation inspectors. From their responses, it was evident that there was an understanding of the necessary skills required to conduct interviews. However, after comparing these responses with the actual interviewing practice of benefit fraud investigators, there was found to be a gap between these beliefs and practice. The findings suggest that although it is agreed what interviewing skills are required to conduct interviews, investigators and managers do not accurately reflect upon whether these skills are actually employed in interviews. This suggests that evaluation of interviews is being neglected and may well explain why research reveals interviewing performance to be often mediocre. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Rapport is an important part of the interviewing of suspects, enabling them to supply information more freely. This study examined 142 actual interviews with suspects, focussing on key tasks that aid rapport. Using an established framework to examine rapport building skills in the early stages of interviews, the study also measured how skilled attempts at sustaining rapport were when interviewers attempted to gather information from suspects and probe accounts for their reliability. It was found that opportunities were often missed to build rapport in the initial stages as several tasks were overlooked. Also, where any rapport had been initially built, it was not always maintained as tasks undertaken later in the interview which may well have assisted rapport maintenance were often conducted unsatisfactorily. Thus, initial rapport building of itself, therefore, is not sufficient in influencing overall interview quality and outcomes, since rapport also has to be maintained throughout the interview.

Since the mid-1990s, there has been an increase in the number of benefit fraud interviews with suspects conducted throughout the UK. Despite this proliferation, few published studies have been conducted in this area. In light of the scarcity of research, the present study examined the views, beliefs and perceptions of benefit fraud investigation professionals. A questionnaire was answered by 114 respondents including investigators, investigation managers, investigation trainers, and investigation inspectors. From their responses, it was evident that there was an understanding of the necessary tasks required to conduct interviews and, in general, support for the recommended interviewing framework. However, not unlike other studies of law enforcement officers, there persisted amongst investigators an over-estimation of their abilities to detect either truth or lies via non-verbal behaviours, as well as a lack of standardisation concerning how to evaluate interview performance. Guilt presumption was also evident. Comparisons to recent studies of actual practice, however, point to inaccurate perceptions concerning the employment of a range of tasks. These findings may well explain why interviewing standards found in those other benefit fraud studies remain largely mediocre.

Purpose. The present study examines whether interviewing in a manner that is compatible with a recommended model of interviewing (called the ‘PEACE’ model) impacts on outcomes of the interviews examined in contrast to prior studies which have usually been concerned whether the conducted interviews were fair and not coercive or whether there had been positive effects of training upon subsequent interview performance. Methods. This study, examining in detail 142 actual suspect interviews, is set in the barely researched area of social security benefit fraud, reflecting current trends in Britain concerning increasing numbers of interviews with suspects undertaken by public sector organizations and the pluralization of policing. Results. It was found that good interviewing in each of the recommended stages that make up the PEACE model generally led to better interviews, indicating the importance that each stage contributes to overall interview quality. Further, the quality of interviews was compared against a range of interview outcomes and it was found that skilled PEACE interviewing was associated with the securing of full accounts, including confessions. Conclusion. Given the few examples of skilled interviewing found in the study it is argued that further training of investigators is necessary to improve both interviewing performance and organizational outcomes.

Whereas much of the limited research concerning the actual investigative interviewing of suspects has involved police interviews, almost no research has involved other agencies who regularly undertake criminal investigations (for example, those various government agencies that conduct investigations regarding benefit fraud). This study examined a sample of 142 of the more demanding interviews, (both from audiotapes and transcripts of actual interviews with suspects) and it revealed that, while investigators generally displayed ethical interviewing standards and tended to use open questioning techniques, few interviews were skilled. Shortcomings were particularly found in terms of rapport development, summarizing, flexibility, and how investigators brought interviews to closure. Given this frequency of ineffective interviewing, it is recommended that further training of interviewers is required and that additional research is required into the reasons for the mediocre performance.

The adaptation and application of the “PEACE” framework for investigative interviewing in public sector counter-fraud was intended to create a more professional body of trained counter-fraud interviewers and a more standardized interview model. This paper discusses the importance of interviewing in the investigation process, with specific reference to fraud. Specifically, it will examine the Department for Work and Pensions public sector agency. It examines how successfully the PEACE model can fit into fraud investigative interviewing, and investigates the attitudes and perceptions of fraud investigators to the PEACE framework as applied to the fraud interview. The paper refers to research indicating that PEACE is not being consistently applied in all interviews, and that some elements of the model might work better than others in relation to fraud interviews. Further, the paper highlights the mixed reaction of investigators to using the model, and leads to the proposition that perhaps the model needs to be adapted to “fit” fraud interviews.

In porous materials, susceptibility contrasts between the matrix and the pore fluid generate pore-scale inhomogeneities in the magnetic field that are referred to as internal gradients. Internal gradients impact NMR measurements, and can cause large errors in the calculated diffusion coefficient if they are not accounted for. The magnitude of the internal gradients is determined by the susceptibility contrast, the strength of the background magnetic field, and the pore geometry. We use statistical analysis to look for correlation between measured internal gradients and properties of sediment samples. The primary goal of this analysis was to identify parameters that could be used as predictors of internal gradient magnitudes. We measured internal gradients using two different NMR methods: Method 1 estimates an average effective gradient, and Method 2 calculates a distribution of effective gradients. The sediment properties that we consider are magnetic susceptibility, iron content, specific surface area, grain size, and measured NMR parameters including the mean log T2 and the T1/T2 ratio. In our preliminary analysis, conducted with data from 20 sediment samples, we observe linear trends between iron content and measured gradients, and between magnetic susceptibility and measured gradients. We also see that the mineral form of iron appears to impact the relationships between iron content, magnetic susceptibility, and internal gradients. The correlation observed between gradients measured with Method 1 and both the specific surface area and T2 could indicate that this method is biased by relaxation time; this relationship was not observed for the gradients measured with Method 2. We plan to collect data on more sediment samples to better understand these relationships and develop a model for the estimation of internal gradients. Such a model will enable us to include internal gradient values in diffusion coefficient calculations for a range of nearsurface applications.

The file attached to this record is the author's final peer reviewed version. The Publisher's final version can be found by following the DOI link. ABSTRACT Interrogation techniques are well explored, but in Slovenia it has remained unknown what interrogation techniques are used and what the basic characteristics of suspect interrogations are. The Slovenian interrogation manual proposes some coercive interrogation techniques and neglects their weaknesses. The aim of the current study was to examine Slovenian police officers’ beliefs as to the basic characteristics of their interrogations and whether techniques proposed by the manual are used in practice to begin to provide some insight into what actually happens in such interrogations. A survey instrument was used to obtain selfreport data from a sample of criminal investigators. From 86 completed questionnaires it was found that a typical interrogation of a suspect lasts around 90 minutes and is not recorded. Interviewers typically use three interrogation techniques namely (i) conducting interrogations in isolation; (ii) identifying contradictions in the suspect’s story; and (iii) confronting the suspect with evidence. Findings suggest that some coercive interrogation techniques are used in practice (e.g. offering moral justifications, alluding to have evidence of guilt, good cop/bad cop routine, and minimization). The study is the first insight into the practices of Slovenian investigators when questioning suspects. Differences among general, white-collar and organized crime investigators are also discussed.