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BackgroundThere has been growing interest in the NHS over recent years in the use of enhanced recovery programmes for elective surgery to deliver productivity gains through reduced length of stay, fewer postoperative complications, reduced readmissions and improved patient outcomes.ObjectivesTo evaluate the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of enhanced recovery programmes for patients undergoing elective surgery in acute hospital settings. To identify and critically describe key factors associated with successful adoption, implementation and sustainability of enhanced recovery programmes in UK settings. To summarise existing knowledge about patient experience of enhanced recovery programmes in UK settings.Data sourcesEight databases, including Database of Abstracts of Reviews and Effects, International Prospective of Systematic Reviews, NHS Economic Evaluation Database and MEDLINE, were searched from 1990 to March 2013 without language restrictions. Relevant reports and guidelines and reference lists of retrieved articles were scanned to identify additional studies.Review methodsSystematic reviews, randomised controlled trials (RCTs), economic evaluations, and UK NHS cost analysis studies were included if they evaluated the impact of enhanced recovery programmes on any health- and cost-related outcomes. Eligible studies included patients undergoing elective surgery in an acute hospital setting. Implementation case studies and surveys of patient experience in a UK setting were also eligible for inclusion. Quality assessment of systematic reviews, RCTs and economic evaluations was based on existing Centre for Reviews and Dissemination processes. All stages of the review process were performed by one researcher and checked by a second with discrepancies resolved by consensus. The type and range of evidence precluded meta-analysis and we therefore performed a narrative synthesis, differentiating between clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness, implementation case studies and evidence on patient experience.ResultsSeventeen systematic reviews of varying quality were included in this report. Twelve additional RCTs were included; all were considered at high risk of bias. Most of the evidence focused on colorectal surgery. Fourteen innovation case studies and 15 implementation case studies undertaken in NHS settings were identified and provide descriptions of factors critical to the success of an enhanced recovery programme. Ten relevant economic evaluations were identified evaluating costs and outcomes over short time horizons. Despite the plethora of studies, robust evidence was sparse. Evidence for colorectal surgery suggests that enhanced recovery programmes may reduce hospital stays by 0.5–3.5 days compared with conventional care. There were no significant differences in reported readmission rates. Other surgical specialties showed greater variation in reported reductions in length of stay reflecting the limited evidence identified.LimitationsFindings relating to other clinical outcomes, cost-effectiveness, implementation and patient experience were hampered by a lack of robust evidence and poor reporting.ConclusionsThere is consistent, albeit limited, evidence that enhanced recovery programmes may reduce length of patient hospital stay without increasing readmission rates. The extent to which managers and clinicians considering implementing enhanced recovery programmes can realise reductions and cost savings will depend on length of stays achieved under their existing care pathway. RCTs comparing an enhanced recovery programme with conventional care continue to be conducted and published. Further single-centre RCTs of this kind are not a priority. Rather, what is needed is improved collection and reporting of how enhanced recovery programmes are implemented, resourced and experienced in NHS settings.FundingThe National Institute for Health Research Health Services and Delivery Research programme.

BackgroundTumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α inhibitors (anti-TNFs) are typically used when the inflammatory rheumatologic diseases ankylosing spondylitis (AS) and non-radiographic axial spondyloarthritis (nr-AxSpA) have not responded adequately to conventional therapy. Current National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidance recommends treatment with adalimumab, etanercept and golimumab in adults with active (severe) AS only if certain criteria are fulfilled but it does not recommend infliximab for AS. Anti-TNFs for patients with nr-AxSpA have not previously been appraised by NICE.ObjectiveTo determine the clinical effectiveness, safety and cost-effectiveness within the NHS of adalimumab, certolizumab pegol, etanercept, golimumab and infliximab, within their licensed indications, for the treatment of severe active AS or severe nr-AxSpA (but with objective signs of inflammation).DesignSystematic review and economic model.Data sourcesFifteen databases were searched for relevant studies in July 2014.Review methodsClinical effectiveness data from randomised controlled trials (RCTs) were synthesised using Bayesian network meta-analysis methods. Results from other studies were summarised narratively. Only full economic evaluations that compared two or more options and considered both costs and consequences were included in the systematic review of cost-effectiveness studies. The differences in the approaches and assumptions used across the studies, and also those in the manufacturer’s submissions, were examined in order to explain any discrepancies in the findings and to identify key areas of uncertainty. A de novo decision model was developed with a generalised framework for evidence synthesis that pooled change in disease activity (BASDAI and BASDAI 50) and simultaneously synthesised information on function (BASFI) to determine the long-term quality-adjusted life-year and cost burden of the disease in the economic model. The decision model was developed in accordance with the NICE reference case. The model has a lifetime horizon (60 years) and considers costs from the perspective of the NHS and personal social services. Health effects were expressed in terms of quality-adjusted life-years.ResultsIn total, 28 eligible RCTs were identified and 26 were placebo controlled (mostly up to 12 weeks); 17 extended into open-label active treatment-only phases. Most RCTs were judged to have a low risk of bias overall. In both AS and nr-AxSpA populations, anti-TNFs produced clinically important benefits to patients in terms of improving function and reducing disease activity; for AS, the relative risks for ASAS 40 ranged from 2.53 to 3.42. The efficacy estimates were consistently slightly smaller for nr-AxSpA than for AS. Statistical (and clinical) heterogeneity was more apparent in the nr-AxSpA analyses than in the AS analyses; both the reliability of the nr-AxSpA meta-analysis results and their true relevance to patients seen in clinical practice are questionable. In AS, anti-TNFs are approximately equally effective. Effectiveness appears to be maintained over time, with around 50% of patients still responding at 2 years. Evidence for an effect of anti-TNFs delaying disease progression was limited; results from ongoing long-term studies should help to clarify this issue. Sequential treatment with anti-TNFs can be worthwhile but the drug survival response rates and benefits are reduced with second and third anti-TNFs. The de novo model, which addressed many of the issues of earlier evaluations, generated incremental cost-effectiveness ratios ranging from £19,240 to £66,529 depending on anti-TNF and modelling assumptions.ConclusionsIn both AS and nr-AxSpA populations anti-TNFs are clinically effective, although more so in AS than in nr-AxSpA. Anti-TNFs may be an effective use of NHS resources depending on which assumptions are considered appropriate.Future work recommendationsRandomised trials are needed to identify the nr-AxSpA population who will benefit the most from anti-TNFs.Study registrationThis study is registered as PROSPERO CRD42014010182.FundingThe National Institute for Health Research Health Technology Assessment programme.

Objective This systematic review aimed to evaluate the short- and long-term safety, efficacy and costs of stapled haemorrhoidopexy (SH) compared with conventional haemorrhoidectomy. Method We searched 26 electronic databases and websites for studies in any language up to July 2006. Inclusion criteria were predefined, and each stage of the review process was conducted in duplicate. Results Twenty-seven randomized controlled trials were included (n = 2279). All had some methodological flaws. Postoperatively, 19 trials (95%) reported less pain, 17 (89%) reported a shorter operating time, 14 (88%) a shorter hospital stay, and 14 (93%) a shorter convalescence time following SH. However, prolapse was significantly more common after SH (OR 3.38; 95% CI: 1.00, 11.47). In the longer term, prolapse was significantly more common after SH (OR 4.34; 95% CI: 1.67, 11.28) as was reintervention for prolapse (OR 6.78; 95% CI: 2.00, 23.00). There were no differences in the rate or type of complications. Conventional haemorrhoidectomy and SH had similar costs during the initial admission. Conclusion Compared with conventional haemorrhoidectomy, SH resulted in less postoperative pain, shorter operating time, a shorter hospital stay, and a shorter convalescence, but a higher rate of prolapse and reintervention for prolapse.

Objectives To assess the evidence on the impact of enhanced recovery programmes for patients undergoing elective surgery in acute hospital settings in the UK. Design Rapid evidence synthesis. Eight databases were searched from 1990 to March 2013 without language restrictions. Relevant reports and guidelines, websites and reference lists of retrieved articles were scanned to identify additional studies. Systematic reviews, RCTs not included in the systematic reviews, economic evaluations and UK NHS cost analysis, implementation case studies and surveys of patient experience in a UK setting were eligible for inclusion. Primary and secondary outcome measures We assessed the impact of enhanced recovery programmes on health or cost-related outcomes, and assessed implementation case studies and patient experience in UK settings. Studies were quality assessed where appropriate using the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects critical appraisal process. Results 17 systematic reviews and 12 additional RCTs were included. Ten relevant economic evaluations were included. No cost analysis studies were identified. Most of the evidence focused on colorectal surgery. 14 innovation case studies and 15 implementation case studies undertaken in National Health Service settings described factors critical to the success of an enhanced recovery programme. Evidence for colorectal surgery suggests that enhanced recovery programmes may reduce hospital stays by 0.5–3.5 days compared with conventional care. There were no significant differences in reported readmission rates. Other surgical specialties showed greater variation in reductions in length of stay reflecting the limited evidence identified. Findings relating to other outcomes were hampered by a lack of robust evidence and poor reporting. Conclusions There is consistent, albeit limited, evidence that enhanced recovery programmes can reduce length of patient hospital stay without increasing readmission rates. The extent to which managers and clinicians considering implementing enhanced recovery programmes in UK settings can realise savings will depend on length of stay achieved under their existing care pathway.

Objectives To assess the clinical effectiveness of thigh length versus knee length antiembolism stockings for the prevention of deep vein thrombosis (DVT) in surgical patients. Design Systematic review and meta-analysis using direct methods and network meta-analysis. Methods Previous systematic reviews and electronic databases were searched to February 2014 for randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of thigh length or knee length antiembolism stockings in surgical patients. Study quality was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool. The primary outcome was incidence of DVT. Analysis of the DVT data was performed using ORs along with 95% CIs. The I2 statistic was used to quantify statistical heterogeneity. Results 23 RCTs were included; there was substantial variation between the trials and many were poorly reported with an unclear risk of bias. Five RCTs directly comparing thigh length versus knee length stockings were pooled and the summary estimate of effect favouring thigh length stockings was not statistically significant (OR 1.48, 95% CI 0.80 to 2.73). 13 RCTs were included in the network meta-analysis; thigh length stockings with pharmacological prophylaxis were more effective than knee length stockings with pharmacological prophylaxis, but again results were not statistically significant (OR 1.76, 95% credible intervals 0.82 to 3.53). Conclusions Thigh length stockings may be more effective than knee length stockings, but results did not reach statistical significance and the evidence base is weak. Further research to confirm this finding is unlikely to be worthwhile. While thigh length stockings appear to have superior efficacy, practical issues such as patient acceptability may prevent their wide use in clinical practice. Systematic review registration number CRD42014007202.

Aim To provide evidence on how women's circumstances and experiences influence their smoking behaviour in pregnancy, including their attempts to quit. Background Women in disadvantaged circumstances are more likely to smoke prior to pregnancy; they are also less likely to quit in pregnancy and, among those who quit, more likely to resume smoking after birth. Although there is a rich seam of qualitative research on their experiences, it has yet to be bought together and synthesized. Design The synthesis was conducted using meta-ethnography. Data sources A comprehensive search of five electronic databases (inception to May 2012) was completed to identify qualitative research exploring pregnant women's experiences of smoking in pregnancy. Review methods Following critical appraisal, 26 studies reported in 29 papers were included in the review. Over 640 pregnant women were represented, the majority drawn from disadvantaged groups. We carried out the synthesis using meta-ethnography. Results Four dimensions of women's circumstances and experiences of smoking in pregnancy were highlighted: the embeddedness of smoking in women's lives, questioned only because of pregnancy; quitting for pregnancy rather than for good; quitting had significant costs for the woman and cutting down was a positive alternative; the role of partners and the broader dynamics of the couple's relationship in influencing women's smoking habits. Conclusion Syntheses of qualitative research have an important role to play in producing the evidence base for midwifery, nursing, and public health policy and practice. The four dimensions identified in this review have implications for the design and delivery of interventions to support women to quit smoking in pregnancy.

Objectives To identify and critically assess the extent to which systematic reviews of enhanced recovery programmes for patients undergoing colorectal surgery differ in their methodology and reported estimates of effect. Design Review of published systematic reviews. We searched the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, the Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (DARE) and Health Technology Assessment (HTA) Database from 1990 to March 2013. Systematic reviews of enhanced recovery programmes for patients undergoing colorectal surgery were eligible for inclusion. Primary and secondary outcome measures The primary outcome was length of hospital stay. We assessed changes in pooled estimates of treatment effect over time and how these might have been influenced by decisions taken by researchers as well as by the availability of new trials. The quality of systematic reviews was assessed using the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination (CRD) DARE critical appraisal process. Results 10 systematic reviews were included. Systematic reviews of randomised controlled trials have consistently shown a reduction in length of hospital stay with enhanced recovery compared with traditional care. The estimated effect tended to increase from 2006 to 2010 as more trials were published but has not altered significantly in the most recent review, despite the inclusion of several unique trials. The best estimate appears to be an average reduction of around 2.5 days in primary postoperative length of stay. Differences between reviews reflected differences in interpretation of inclusion criteria, searching and analytical methods or software. Conclusions Systematic reviews of enhanced recovery programmes show a high level of research waste, with multiple reviews covering identical or very similar groups of trials. Where multiple reviews exist on a topic, interpretation may require careful attention to apparently minor differences between reviews. Researchers can help readers by acknowledging existing reviews and through clear reporting of key decisions, especially on inclusion/exclusion and on statistical pooling.

General techniques for the quality control of long lengths of optical fiber for telecommunications applications have been developed during the past 10 years in concert with ongoing handling scenarios that involved cabled versions of the tested fiber. In the present work, we discuss the same quality control techniques, but apply the results to stand-alone fiber (primary or secondary buffer only). Furthermore, by modifying the normal quality control techniques, we have produced a stand-alone fiber that exhibits superior mechanical performance for missile payout applications when compared with standard telecommunications fiber. High quality optical fibers, which were produced to more exacting standards than long-haul telecommunications fibers, were subsequently exposed to high-stress bend tests along multikilometer lengths of the fiber. Mechanical failures during these tests could occur at stresses lower than the required 200 ksi proof test. The fracture surfaces for these failures were examined by normal fractographic techniques. These surfaces clearly showed that mechanical failure occurred at stresses below the proof stress. Furthermore, an appreciable number of these failures were accompanied by damage to the buffer, presumably preceding the mechanical failure. To correct the situation, we introduced changes in both the process and the testing for these fibers. During processing, the fibers were prepared with high quality silica substrate tubing, and all processing was carried out in a clean room environment. Proof testing subsequent to production was changed from a single test at 200 ksi to multiple testing at 100 ksi increments. Testing was further modified to include preinspection of the entire buffer surface for flaws of a serious enough nature to lead to mechanical damage to the underlying glass. The interaction of all of the previously noted changes helped to increase the reliability of the optical fiber for missile payout applications. Fractographs of the failures, proof test data, and identification of the buffer flaws, independent of fiber manufacturer or manufacturing process, will be discussed.

Background Allergic asthma is a long-term disorder of the airways resulting from overexpression of immunoglobulin E (IgE) in response to environmental allergens. Patients with poorly controlled asthma are at high risk of exacerbations requiring additional treatment, including hospitalisations. Severe exacerbations are potentially life threatening. Guidelines identify five treatment steps for both adults and children. Omalizumab (Xolair(®)) is a recombinant DNA-derived humanised monoclonal antibody indicated as an add-on therapy in patients aged ≥ 6 years with severe persistent allergic asthma uncontrolled at treatment step 4 or 5. Objective To determine the clinical effectiveness, safety and cost-effectiveness of omalizumab, as an add-on therapy to standard care, within its licensed indication, compared with standard therapy alone for the treatment of severe persistent allergic asthma in adults and adolescents aged ≥ 12 years and children aged 6-11 years. Data sources Eleven electronic databases (including MEDLINE, EMBASE and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials) and additional sources including regulatory agency reports were searched from inception to October 2011. Additional data sources include: the manufacturer's submission (MS); two previous National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) single technology appraisal (STA) submissions; and existing reviews on the safety of omalizumab and oral corticosteroids (OCSs). Review methods Systematic reviews of the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness evidence for omalizumab were performed. The primary outcome was number of clinically significant (CS) exacerbations. Other outcomes included asthma symptoms, unscheduled health-care use, asthma-related mortality, OCS use and health-related quality of life (HRQoL). Because of methodological and clinical heterogeneity between trials, a narrative synthesis was applied. Pragmatic reviews with best evidence syntheses were used to assess adverse events of omalizumab and OCSs. The cost-effectiveness of omalizumab was assessed from the perspective of the UK NHS in the two separate populations: adults and adolescents, and children, using a cohort Markov model. Costs and outcomes were discounted at 3.5% per annum. Results are presented for additional subgroup populations: (1) hospitalised for asthma in the previous year, (2) adults and adolescents on maintenance OCSs and (3) three or more exacerbations in the previous year. Results Eleven randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and 13 observational studies were identified, including four RCTs/subgroups in the adult licensed population and one subgroup in children. A minority of patients were on maintenance OCSs. No evidence comparing omalizumab with OCSs was identified. Omalizumab significantly reduced the incidence of CS exacerbations in both adults and children [adults: INvestigatioN of Omalizumab in seVere Asthma Trial (INNOVATE): rate ratio 0.74; 95% CI 0.55 to 1.00; children IA-05 EUP (the a priori subgroup of patients who met the European Medicines Agency license criteria) 0.66; 95% CI 0.44 to 1.00]. Significant benefits were observed for a range of other outcomes in adults. Subgroup evidence showed benefits in adults on maintenance OCSs. Evidence for an OCS-sparing effect of omalizumab was limited but consistent. Omalizumab is available as 75 mg and 150 mg prefilled syringes at prices of £128.07 and £256.15 respectively. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) for adults and adolescents is £83,822 per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) gained, whereas the ICER for children is £78,009 per QALY gained. The results are similar for the subgroup population of ≥ 3 exacerbations in the previous year, whereas the ICER for the other subgroup populations are lower; £46,431 for the hospitalisation subgroup in adults and adolescents, £44,142 for the hospitalisation subgroup in children and £50,181 for the maintenance OCS subgroup. Conclusion Omalizumab reduces the incidence of CS exacerbations in adults and children, with benefits on other outcomes in adults. Limited, underpowered subgroup evidence exists that omalizumab reduces exacerbations and OCS requirements in adults on OCSs. Evidence in children is weaker and more uncertain. The ICERs are above conventional NHS thresholds of cost-effectiveness. The key drivers of cost-effectiveness are asthma-related mortality risk and, to a lesser extent, HRQoL improvement and OCS-related adverse effects. An adequately powered double-blind RCT in both adults and children on maintenance OCSs and an individual patient data meta-analysis of existing trials should be considered. A registry of all patients on omalizumab should be established. Study registration The study was registered as PROSPERO CRD42011001625. Funding This report was commissioned by the National Institute for Health Research Health Technology Assessment programme on behalf of NICE as project number HTA 10/128/01.

This paper presents a summary of the evidence review group (ERG) report into the use of bevacizumab (Avastin®, Roche) in combination with a taxane for the treatment of untreated metastatic breast cancer (mBC). The main clinical effectiveness data were derived from a single, open-label randomised controlled trial (RCT) (E2100) that evaluated the addition of bevacizumab to weekly (q.w.) paclitaxel in patients with human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-negative mBC who had not previously received chemotherapy for advanced disease. This trial reported statistically significant increases in median progression-free survival (PFS) for the addition of bevacizumab (5.8–11.3 months). Median overall survival was not significantly different between the two groups; whether this is a true null finding or due to crossover between treatment arms cannot be established, as relevant data were not collected. The manufacturer reported that the addition of bevacizumab to paclitaxel q.w. therapy was associated with a significant improvement in quality of life, as measured by FACT-B (functional assessment of cancer therapy for breast cancer) scores. However, the ERG noted that these results were based on extreme imputed values, the removal of which led to non-significant differences in quality of life. The manufacturer conducted an indirect comparison. However, owing to methodological limitations and concerns about the validity and exchangeability of the included trials, the ERG did not consider the findings to be reliable. One additional relevant RCT [AVADO (Avastin and Docetaxel); BO17708] evaluating the addition of bevacizumab to docetaxel was excluded from the manufacturer’s submission. This was summarised by the ERG. In terms of response rate and PFS, AVADO reported a markedly smaller benefit of adding bevacizumab to docetaxel than that reported for adding bevacizumab to q.w. paclitaxel in E2100. AVADO also reported no statistically significant effect of combination therapy versus docetaxel in terms of overall survival. The manufacturer developed a de novo economic model that considered patients with the same baseline characteristics as women in the E2100 trial. The model assessed BEV + PAC – bevacizumab 10 mg/kg every 2 weeks in combination with paclitaxel 90 mg/m2weekly for 3 weeks followed by 1 week of rest; PAC q.w. – paclitaxel (monotherapy) 90 mg/m2weekly for 3 weeks followed by 1 week of rest; DOC – docetaxel (monotherapy) 75 mg/m2on day 1 every 21 days (considered current UK NHS clinical practice in the submission); and GEM + PAC – gemcitabine 1250 mg/m2on days 1 and 8 plus paclitaxel 175 mg/m2on day 1 every 21 days. Pairwise comparisons were made between BEV + PAC and PAC (using the E2100 trial), BEV + PAC and DOC, and BEV + PAC and GEM + PAC. Based on NHS list prices, the manufacturer’s model estimated incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) for BEV + PAC of £117,803, £115,059 and £105,777 per QALY gained, relative to PAC, DOC and GEM + PAC regimens, respectively. If the NHS Purchasing and Supply Agency prices for PAC with a 10-g cap on the cost per patient of BEV were used instead, the ICERs for BEV + PAC were estimated at £77,314, £57,753 and £60,101 per QALY, respectively. The submission suggested that the regimen of BEV + DOC is not cost-effective because it is considered less effective and more costly than BEV + PAC. Analysis by the ERG suggested that alternative assumptions can increase the ICERs further and, based on current prices, no plausible changes to the model assumptions will bring the ICERs for BEV + PAC lower.

OBJECTIVES To determine the safety, clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of circular stapled haemorrhoidopexy (SH) for the treatment of haemorrhoids. DATA SOURCES Main electronic databases were searched up to July 2006. REVIEW METHODS Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) with 20 or more participants that compared SH with any conventional haemorrhoidectomy (CH) technique in people of any age with prolapsing haemorrhoids for whom surgery is considered a relevant option, were used to evaluate clinical effectiveness. An economic model of the surgical treatment of haemorrhoids was developed. RESULTS The clinical effectiveness review included 27 RCTs (n = 2279; 1137 SH; 1142 CH). All had some methodological flaws; only two reported recruiting patients with second, third and fourth degree haemorrhoids, and 37% reported using an appropriate method of randomisation and/or allocation concealment. In the early postoperative period 95% of trials reported less pain following SH; by day 21 the pain reported following SH and CH was minimal, with little difference between the two techniques. Significantly fewer patients had unhealed wounds at 6 weeks following SH [odds ratio (OR) 0.08, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.03 to 0.19, p < 0.001]. Residual prolapse was more common after SH (OR 3.38, 95% CI 1.00 to 11.47, p = 0.05, nine RCTs, results of a sensitivity analysis). There was no difference between SH and CH in the incidence of bleeding or postoperative complications. SH resulted in shorter operating times, hospital stay, time to first bowel movement and return to normal activity. In the short term (between 6 weeks and a year) prolapse was more common after SH (OR 4.68, 95% CI 1.11 to 19.71, p = 0.04, six RCTs). There was no difference in the number of patients complaining of pain between SH and CH. In the long term (1 year and over), there was a significantly higher rate of prolapse after SH (OR 4.34, 95% CI 1.67 to 11.28, p = 0.003, 12 RCTs). There was no difference in the number of patients experiencing pain, or the incidence of bleeding, between SH and CH. There was no difference in the total number of reinterventions, or reinterventions for pain, bleeding or complications, between SH and CH. Significantly more reinterventions were undertaken after SH for prolapse at 12 months or longer (OR 6.78, 95% CI 2.00 to 23.00, p = 0.002, six RCTs). Overall, there was no statistically significant difference in the rate of complications between SH and CH. In the economic assessment it was found that, on average, CH dominated SH. However, CH and SH had very similar costs and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs). On average, the difference in costs between the procedures was 19 pounds and the difference in QALY was -0.001, favouring CH, over 3 years. In terms of QALYs, the superior quality of life due to lower pain levels in the early postoperative period with SH was offset by the higher rate of symptoms over the follow-up period, compared with CH. The results are very sensitive to modelling assumptions, particularly the valuation of utility in the early postoperative period. The probabilistic sensitivity analysis showed that, at a threshold incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of 20,000-30,000 pounds per QALY, SH had a 45% probability of being cost-effective. CONCLUSIONS SH was associated with less pain in the immediate postoperative period, but a higher rate of residual prolapse, prolapse in the longer term and reintervention for prolapse. There was no clear difference in the rate or type of complications associated with the two techniques and the absolute and relative rates of recurrence and reintervention for both are still uncertain. CH and SH had very similar costs and QALYs, the cost of the staple gun being offset by savings in hospital stay. Should the price of the gun change, the conclusions of the economic analysis may also change. Some training may be required in the use of the staple gun; this is not expected to have major resource implications. Given the currently available clinical evidence and the results of the economic analysis, the decision as to whether SH or CH is conducted could primarily be based on the priorities and preferences of the patient and surgeon. An adequately powered, good-quality RCT is required, comparing SH with CH, recruiting patients with second, third and fourth degree haemorrhoids, and having a minimum follow-up period of 5 years to ensure an adequate evaluation of the reintervention rate. Other areas for research are the effectiveness of SH in patients with fourth degree haemorrhoids and patients with co-morbid conditions, the reintervention rates for all treatments for haemorrhoids, utilities of patients up to 6 months postoperatively, the trade-offs of patients for short-term pain versus long-term outcomes, and the ability of SH to reduce hospital stays in a real practice setting.