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A low carbohydrate and high fat (LCHF) flour was developed by combining almond flour, desiccated coconut flour, defatted soya flour, dry gluten powder, psyllium husk and skimmed milk powder. Determination of rheological, bread making, nutritional, and staling characteristics of LCHF flour in comparison with wheat flour (WF) was studied. The results showed that LCHF flour had lower amylograph pasting temperature (31.6 °C), peak viscosity (200 BU), farinograph dough stability (0.8 min), and bread volume (315 ml) compared to WF (61.0 °C; 782 BU; 8.7 min; and 525 ml) respectively. The use of additive mixes such as fungal alpha-amylase, sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate and xanthan gum, improved the volume and texture of the LCHF bread. Scanning electron microscope images showed little or no presence of starch granules in LCHF dough and bread. Differential scanning calorimetry studies indicated that, during storage (1–5 days), the enthalpy for gelatinization of endotherm starch increased (0.71–3.40 j/g) in WF bread, however, in LCHF bread this increase was lesser (0.53 to 2.2 j/g) indicating slower staling rate in LCHF bread. The LCHF bread showed lower carbohydrate (13.7%), in-vitro starch digestibility (17.3%) and staling rate, higher protein (22.51%), fat (11.01%), and medium-chain fatty acids than WF bread (51.9%; 38.2%; 12.57%; 3.78%) respectively. The results showed that the developed product would be beneficial for people suffering from diabetics and obesity.

The present research sought to experiment the effect of additives such as dry gluten powder (DGP), fungal α-amylase (FAA), sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate (SSL) and their combination (GAS) on the rheological and nutritional profile of bread. The incorporation of varied percentage (0–20%) of stenostylis stenocarpa flour (ssF) into WF(Wheat Flour) was optimized at 15%. The results showed that the incorporation of 15% ssF decreased the farinograph dough stability and extensograph resistance to extension. There was protein matrix disruption in 15% ssF dough contrary to 15% ssF + GAS dough as shown in scanning electron micrograph (SEM). However, the addition of GAS to 15% ssF produced bread with an improved quality score that competed favourably with control bread. The organoleptic evaluation revealed an overall quality score of 52.5, 40 and 49% for control, 15% ssF and 15% ssF + GAS bread respectively. Furthermore, 15% ssF + GAS revealed a higher value of ash, protein, dietary fibre, total phenol contents and IC(50) of DPPH radical scavenging activity in comparison to control bread. Hence, the present study showed that partial replacement of WF with 15% ssF + GAS has a positive effect on the overall sensorial acceptability and nutritional value of bread. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Punicic acid (PA), a predominant fatty acid (85%) in pomegranate seeds, also called as an ω-5 fatty acid, is known to render various health beneficial effects to humans. The objective of this study was to prepare and observe the effect of replacement of wheat flour with 5–12.5% punicic acid rich pomegranate seed powder (PSP, 9XXX fraction) on rheological, physico-sensory and antioxidant properties of bread. The increasing amount of PSP caused decrease in farinograph water absorption capacity, dough stability; amylograph peak viscosity; bread volume and overall quality score, whereas crumb hardness was increased. The combination of additives (CA) showed significant improvement in dough strength, texture and quality of bread with 10% PSP. The total polyphenol content (TPP) and radical scavenging activity (RSA) increased by 10- to 30-fold while PA was increased to 60-fold when compared to control. The recovery of PA from bread samples was in range of 45–60% and further increased by the addition of CA (65%). Hence, 10% PSP bread having 60% recovery of PA can be successfully considered for formulations without altering the rheological and sensory quality of bread. These results reveal that PA rich PSP prepared from a fruit industry by-product can be utilized for preparing antioxidant rich functional bread which also helps in overall improvement of bone health. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: The online version of this article (10.1007/s13197-019-04055-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The effect of incorporation of the different percentage of green gram split dehusked flour, GGSF in rice flour (RF) + whey protein concentrate (WPC) blend in comparison with wheat flour, WF + WPC blend for the production gluten‐free eggless pancake was studied. The effects of the additives such as xanthan gum, XAN (0.25 and 0.5%), sodium stearoyl‐2‐lactylate SSL, (0.25 and 0.5), and psyllium husk, PH in RF + WPC on the rheological characteristics of pancake with the optimum level of 20% GGSF inclusion were also analyzed. The results showed that the amylograph peak viscosity of RF + WPC (1046 BU) was higher than WF + WPC (897 BU) while the addition of 10%–30% GGSF to RF + WPC impacted a significant reduction. However, there was an observed increase in the addition of additives and 20% optimized level of GGSF to RF + WPC. The batter density value was higher, and the overall quality score was lower for pancake of RF + WPC when compared to a pancake of WF + WPC. Addition of XAN, SSL, and PH decreased the batter density and brought about the highest increase in the overall quality score of pancakes of RF + WPC when compared to individual additives. The developed pancakes were gluten‐free as indicated by immunochemical validation and it may be included in the diet of wheat and egg sensitive population. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The present study demonstrated the successful utilization of rice flour as a basic raw material along with green gram split dehusked flour, whey protein concentrate and the incorporation of additives namely xanthan gum, sodium stearoyl‐2‐lactylate, psyllium husk for the development of gluten‐free eggless pancake. The study will help the baking industry to meet the increasing demand for the production of a newer version of gluten‐free products such as gluten‐free eggless pancakes. This product will also be of health advantage to people with celiac disease.

Green tea polyphenols are potential antioxidants, anti-carcinogenic and effective against various degenerative disorders. Polyphenols are more sensitive to high temperature and alkaline pH. To improve the stability of polyphenols, green tea extract was microencapsulated by freeze drying and spray drying technique using three different wall materials such as maltodextrin (MD), β-cyclodextrin (CD) and combination of both (MD + CD). Freeze dried encapsulates exhibited higher encapsulation efficiency (60–76%) and antioxidant activity (IC50 value 54.77–60.26 μg/ml) than spray dried encapsulates. Comparatively, MD encapsulates had higher encapsulation efficiency and antioxidant activity than other encapsulates. Hence spray dried and freeze dried MD encapsulates were incorporated into bread and evaluated for their quality characteristics. Green tea extract and encapsulates incorporated bread retained their quality in terms of volume and crumb firmness and almost similar to control. Moreover, there was not much significant difference on total polyphenol content of green tea extract and microencapsulates incorporated breads.

Chilli spent residue (CHSR) obtained after oil and oleoresin extraction, is a potential source of dietary fiber (44.4 % total dietary fiber (TDF), 34.9 % insoluble dietary fiber, 9.5 % soluble dietary fiber and protein (19.7 %). The aqueous and methanolic (80 %) extracts of CHSR showed 72 and 63 % antioxidant activity respectively. Inclusion of CHSR at 5–15 % level in bread affected the bread characteristics viz., specific volume, crust color and shape; crumb colour, grain and texture resulting in sensory scores of 60–74 in comparison to the score of 84 for the control bread. However, use of combination of additives (CA) viz.dry gluten powder, fungal α-amylase enzyme and sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate along with 10 % CHSR, improved the dough strength, specific volume, decreased the crumb firmness value and increased the overall quality score of bread. Scanning electron microscopic studies revealed a disruption in the continuity of the protein matrix in bread dough with addition of CHSR above 10 %. Incorporation of CHSR to wheat flour at 10 % level is recommended as it would improve the nutritional quality of bread in terms of increase in dietary fiber, mineral and protein contents.

A multigrain semolina blend (MSB) was prepared by combining mixture of soya (Glycine max) semolina (SS), chickpea split (Cicer arietinum) semolina (CS) and barley (Hordeum vulgare) semolina (BS) – (SSCSBS) with durum wheat semolina. The effect of the incorporation of SSCSBS at 25, 50, 75 and 100% level on the quality characteristics of MSB for upma (without seasoning) was studied. The use of the increasing amount of SSCSBS in MSB increased the farinograph water absorption up to 50% level, but decreased at higher levels of SSCSBS; increased the amylograph pasting temperature; and decreased the peak viscosity. The use of SSCSBS decreased the hardness and springiness but increased the cohesiveness, gumminess and chewiness values of cooked MSB. The overall quality of MSB up to 50% SSCSBS level was acceptable. The nutritional characteristics of MSB with 50% SSCSBS showed that the protein, dietary fiber and resistant starch contents and percentage protein digestibility increased and starch digestibility decreased when compared to control. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS Use of multigrain to enrich the nutritional quality of products is increasing. The beneficial effects of multigrain in upma making have not yet been explored. This paper discusses the effect of partial replacement of durum semolina with mixture of semolina blend of soya, barley and chickpea on the quality characteristics of upma without seasoning. This information may be useful for the food industry to manufacture nutritious multigrain upma in large scale.

Black gram grains were fractionated using roller flour mill. Effect of combination of additives (CA) namely dry gluten powder, sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate, fungal α-amylase on the rheological and bread making characteristics of wheat flour partly replaced with roller milled fractions of black gram was studied. With increase in the addition of straight run flour (SRF), protein rich fraction (PRF), protein and fiber rich fraction (P&FRF) from 0 to 20 %, fiber rich fraction, FRF (0–15 %), the farinograph water absorption increased and dough stability decreased; amylograph pasting temperature increased and peak viscosity decreased; bread volume decreased and crumb firmness value increased indicating adverse effect of these fractions on the rheological and bread making characteristics of wheat flour. Sensory evaluation showed that breads were acceptable only up to the level of 15 % for SRF, PRF & P&FRF and 10 % for FRF. However, when CA containing dry gluten powder, sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate and fungal α-amylase was incorporated the overall quality of the products improved. Use of these fractions increased the protein and fiber contents of bread by 1.24–1.66 and 1.48–3.79 times respectively. The results showed that possibility of utilising roller milled black gram fractions along with CA to improve the taste, texture and nutritional quality of bread.

Energy efficiency and product quality are the key factors for any food processing industry. The aim of the study was to develop energy and time efficient baking process. The hybrid heating (Infrared + Electrical) oven was designed and fabricated using two infrared lamps and electric heating coils. The developed oven can be operated in serial or combined heating modes. The standardized baking conditions were 18 min at 220°C to produce the bread from hybrid heating oven. Effect of baking with hybrid heating mode (H-1 and H-2, hybrid oven) on the quality characteristics of bread as against conventional heating mode (C-1, pilot scale oven; C-2, hybrid oven) was studied. The results showed that breads baked in hybrid heating mode (H-2) had higher moisture content (28.87%), higher volume (670 cm(3)), lower crumb firmness value (374.6 g), and overall quality score (67.0) comparable to conventional baking process (68.5). Moreover, bread baked in hybrid heating mode showed 28% reduction in baking time.

BACKGROUND: (−)-Hydroxycitric acid (HCA) is the major acid present in the fruit rinds of certain species of Garcinia. HCA has been reported to have several health benefits. As HCA is highly hygroscopic in nature and thermally sensitive, it is difficult to incorporate in foodstuffs. Hence, Garcinia cowa fruit extract was microencapsulated using three different wall materials such as whey protein isolate (WPI), maltodextrin (MD) and a combination of whey protein isolate and maltodextrin (WPI+MD) by spray drying. Further, these microencapsulated powders were evaluated for their impact on bread quality and HCA retention. RESULTS: Maltodextrin (MD) encapsulates had higher free (86%) and net HCA (90%) recovery. Microencapsulates incorporated breads had enhanced qualitative characteristics and higher HCA content thanwater extract incorporated bread due to efficient encapsulation during bread baking. Comparatively, bread with MD encapsulates showed softer crumb texture, desirable sensory attributes with considerable volume and higher HCA content. CONCLUSION: The higher HCA contents of encapsulate incorporated breads were sufficient to claim for functionality of HCA in bread. Comparatively, MD had efficiently encapsulated Garcinia fruit extract during spray drying and bread baking. Spray drying proved to be an excellent encapsulation technique for incorporation into the food system.

Microencapsulation is an enduring technology for protection and controlled release of food ingredients. The Garcinia cowa fruit rinds are rich source of (−)-hydroxycitric acid (HCA), which is reported to have various health benefits. But, HCA is hygroscopic in nature and thermally sensitive. Hence, G. cowa fruit extract was microencapsulated using three different wall materials such as whey protein isolate (WPI), maltodextrin (MD) and combination of whey protein isolate and maltodextrin (WPI + MD in 1:1 ratio) by freeze drying at 30% concentration. The microencapsulated powders were evaluated for their impact on bread quality and free HCA concentration. The microcapsules exhibited wider particle size range of 15–100 μm and HPLC analysis showed that all the three encapsulates yielded higher free (above 85%) and net (above 90%) HCA recovery. Moreover, bread with WPI encapsulates exhibited higher volume, softer crumb texture, desirable colour and sensory attributes and had higher free HCA concentration. This indicated that WPI has excellent encapsulation efficiency than other two wall materials during bread baking.

Keeping in view the present day demand for foods with healthy fats, the effect of different fats namely hydrogenated fat (HF) and bakery fat (BF); oils—sunflower oil (SFO), soyabean oil (SBO), olive oil (OLO), palm oil (POO) and coconut oil (CNO) separately at the level of 7.5 % on the rheological, fatty acid profile and quality characteristics of parotta was studied. Addition of fats and oils decreased Farinograph water absorption, Amylograph peak viscosity, Alveograph resistance of dough to deformation and increased average abscissa at rupture. In the micrographs of parotta dough with fats, the protein matrix appeared thick and intact, whereas in the case of parotta dough with oils the protein matrix appeared slightly less intact. The spread ratio and overall quality of parotta with oils were higher than fats. The highest overall quality score was observed for parotta with OLO, followed in decreasing order by SFO, SBO, CNO, POO, HF and BF. Determination of fatty acid profile showed that the parottas with fats contained a high amount of trans fatty acids (TFA), while parottas with oils had no TFA. During storage up to 48 h, the parottas with oils remained softer than the parottas with fats.

The different roller milled fractions from green gram such as straight run flour (SRF), protein rich fraction (PRF), fiber rich fraction (FRF) and protein and fiber rich fraction (P&FRF) were replaced with wheat flour for the preparation of breads. The Farinograph water absorption increased and dough stability decreased by replacement of SRF, PRF, FRF and P&FRF. The bread volume decreased and crumb firmness value increased showing adverse effect of roller milled green gram fractions on the volume and texture of bread. Sensory evaluation of bread showed that the 15 % substitution of SRF, PRF & P&FRF and 10 % substitution of FRF produced acceptable quality bread. Addition of combination of additives (CA) like dry gluten powder, sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate and fungal α-amylase brought about significant improvement in the dough strength and overall quality of the bread. The results showed that bread with improved nutritional quality and acceptable taste could be produced by adding separately 15 % SRF, PRF, P&FRF and 10 % FRF with CA.

The leaves of Murraya koenigii (Family: Rutaceae) are rich source of protein, dietary fiber, iron, calcium, β-carotene and antioxidants. In the present study, dried M. koenigii leaves powder (DMKLP) was incorporated at different levels (5, 10 and 15 %) in cookies and their rheological, physical, sensory and nutritional properties were evaluated. The results revealed that addition of increasing amount of DMKLP from 0 to 15 % increased farinograph water absorption of wheat flour and decreased dough stability; increased amylograph pasting temperature and decreased peak viscosity of wheat flour; increased hardness, decreased cohesiveness and springiness of cookie dough. The contents of protein, dietary fiber, minerals, β-carotene, and radical scavenging activity (RSA) in cookies increased with incorporation of increasing levels of DMKLP. Sensory evaluation showed that cookies with acceptable quality and typical curry leaf flavor could be obtained by incorporating DMKLP up to 10 %. Thus, the nutritional quality of cookies could be enhanced by incorporating DMKLP in a dose dependent manner.

Tinospora cordifolia (Guduchi) is a shrub with various medicinal properties like, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, antihepatotoxic, etc., and widely used in Ayurvedic preparations. Use of dried Tinospora leaf powder (DTLP) at the levels of 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% on the rheological characteristics of wheat flour; organoleptic and nutritional characteristics of cookies was studied. Incorporation of increasing amount of DTLP from 0 to 7.5% increased farinograph water absorption, decreased dough stability; increased amylograph gelatinization temperature, decreased peak viscosity; increased hardness, decreased cohesiveness and springiness of cookie dough; decreased spread ratio and increased breaking strength of the cookies. Sensory evaluation showed that cookies incorporated with 5% DTLP were acceptable. Addition of DTLP increased the protein, dietary fiber, iron, calcium, radical scavenging activity and β-carotene contents of the cookies. The results showed the possibility of utilizing DTLP to improve the nutritional properties of cookies.

In the view of recent growing interest in utilization of grain fractions as food ingredient, present investigation was carried out to evaluate the roller milling potential of green gram. The effect of conditioning moistures on green gram roller milling were studied. The results showed decrease in flour yield from 85.56 to 58.74 % with increase in conditioning moisture from 10 to 16 %. Higher yield of flour was observed from the first (C1), second (C2) and third (C3) reduction passages; whereas, the first (B1), second (B2) and third (B3) break passages produced less flour. The distribution of protein, dietary fiber, ash and fat in different flour streams and by-products from roller milled fractions of green gram showed wide variation. The protein content increased with increasing numbers of breaks and reductions in the flour streams. The highest protein content of 30.16 % was found in bran duster flour and lowest (11.32 %) in fine seed coat. The protein content of break streams was found lower than reduction streams. The dietary fiber content of coarse seed coat was highest (71.17 %) followed by the fine seed coat (57.22 %). The microstructure studies of milled fractions of green gram showed more deformed and damaged starch granules in reduction flour streams than break flour streams.

Studies were carried out on the replacement of sugar with stevioside and liquid sorbitol (SO); addition of hydrocolloids, emulsifiers with and without 10% debittered fenugreek seed powder (DFSP) to a mixture of stevioside and SO on the rheological, microstructural and quality characteristics of cake. Experimental data showed that addition of sugar increased the amylograph viscosity of wheat flour paste during heating and cooling while SO at different percentages decreased these viscosities, however addition of combination of hydrocolloid (xanthan, XA) and emulsifier (polysorbate-60, PS-60) increased the viscosity of wheat flour paste with 100% SO. Addition of combination of XA + PS-60 improved distribution pattern of air cells, increased batter viscosity, cohesiveness, overall quality score of cake with 100% SO and allowed incorporation of DFSP to improve the functional characteristics of cake. Evaluation of composition of developed cake showed negligible sucrose content, perceptible fenugreek flavor and increased dietary fiber as against cake with sugar.

Bran dusters are used in the wheat flour milling process to increase flour extraction rate. Chemical, rheological and bread characteristics of bran duster flours (BDR1, BDR2, BDR3) and straight run flour (SRF) obtained from two commercial roller flour mills were analyzed. Important chemical characteristics such as ash, dry gluten content, sedimentation value, damaged starch and falling number of bran duster flours were determined. Rheological behavior was tested using farinograph and alveograph equipments. The results showed an increase in ash, dry gluten content and Zeleny’s sedimentation value for bran duster flours compared to SRF. Rheological characteristics indicated higher farinograph dough development time and stability values for bran duster flours. Alveograph characteristics indicated higher extensibility and lower elasticity values for bran duster flours. Over all quality score of bread for BDR1 from A and B roller flour mills ranged from 73.4 to 74.7, BDR2 (79–81.8), BDR3 (69–70.4) as against SRF (85.4–86.3).

A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model was developed to study the temperature profile of the bun during baking process. Evaporation-condensation mechanism and effect of the latent heat during phase change of water was incorporated in this model to represent actual bun baking process. Simulation results were validated with experimental measurements of bun temperature at two different positions. Baking process is completed within 20 min, after the temperature of crumb become stable at 98 °C. Further, this study was extended to investigate the effect of partially (two baking trays) loaded and fully loaded (eight baking trays) oven on temperature profile of bun. Velocity and temperature profile differs in partially loaded and fully loaded oven. Bun placed in top rack showed rapid baking while bun placed in bottom rack showed slower baking due to uneven temperature distribution in the oven. Hence, placement of bun inside the oven affects temperature of bun and consequently, the quality of the product.

The investigation aimed at determining the retention and bioaccessibility of b-carotene on baking. Bun was formulated incorporating dehydrated carrot/ drumstick leaves/synthetic form of b-carotene at acceptable levels. The effect of citric acid and turmeric powder on the bioaccessibility of b-carotene was examined. Buns were analyzed for proximate composition, total and bioaccessible b-carotene. Incorporation of different sources of b-carotene did not alter the physical characteristics and proximate composition of the buns. Retention of b-carotene on baking ranged between 62 and 72% in buns with natural sources and 35% in buns with synthetic source. b-carotene in the buns showed a high degree of stability on storage. Bioaccessibility of b-carotene in bun was 5.8% with carrot, 7.1% with synthetic source and below 1% with drumstick leaves. Addition of enhancing components increased the bioaccessibility to a remarkable extent. The study results suggest the possibility of fortifying buns with b-carotene with enhanced bioaccessibility. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS The study identified natural and synthetic forms of b-carotene to be incorporated in bun. Bun is the ideal product for fortification; it is easily acceptable by children in whom vitamin A deficiency is highly prevalent. Carrot and drumstick leaves are rich and economical sources of b-carotene. The selected vegetable sources contain other micronutrients in addition to b-carotene that will improve the nutritive value of buns. Hence, incorporation of carrot and drumstick leaves in buns will have good market potential. The selected sources of b-carotene are fromeasily available natural sources which are economically feasible. The product formulation is well standardized for organoleptic parameters for large-scale production.

Effect of replacement of wheat flour with 0, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100% finger millet flour (FMF), 60% FMF, emulsifiers and hydrocolloids on the batter microscopy, rheology and quality characteristics of muffins were studied. The amylograph peak viscosity, breakdown and setback values decreased as the level of FMF increased. The muffin batter microscopy showed that addition of above 60% FMF in blend decreased the number of air cells, indicating poor air incorporation. With the increase in the FMF level from 0 to 100%, the muffin batter density, viscosity, volume and total score decreased, whereas crumb firmness increased. Adverse effect on the quality characteristics of cake was observed above 60% FMF. Use of a combination of polysorbate-60 and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose significantly improved batter characteristics of muffins with 60% FMF, with respect to viscosity, overall quality of muffin with reference to volume, grain and texture. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS Muffins are normally made with wheat flour, and it is a very popular snack item largely consumed by children. Incorporation of finger millet flour, which is a good source of minerals, increases the nutritive value of muffins and also it is a value addition to the finger millet. The finger millet muffins have a familiar taste as it is widely consumed. This paper discusses the effect of replacement finger millet flour in muffins and the improving effect brought about by the use of additives. This information would benefit the baking industry.

A computational fluid dynamic (CFD) model was developed to study the temperature and browning profile of bread. This study differs from previous work of CFD modeling reported in literature in that phase change during evaporation as well as evaporation–condensation mechanism during baking process was incorporated in this model. Simulation results were validated with experimental measurements of bread temperature at three different positions. In this study crumb temperature does not cross 100 °C due to incorporation of evaporation–condensation mechanism in this model. Baking process completes within 25 min of processing time once the temperature of crumb becomes stable at 98 °C. Formation of crust and browning of bread surface were studied using earlier reported kinetic model and it predicted more browning at bread edges than the surfaces. However, predicted browning index was well within the range (

Celery seed had a total dietary fiber (TDF), 56.0%; insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), 49.0%; soluble dietary fiber (SDF), 7.0%, while celery spent residue (CSR) after oil and oleoresin extraction contained 61% TDF, 53.5% IDF, 7.5% SDF, 19% protein, 7.9% starch and 5% fat. The hydration properties of fiber increased with decrease in particle size of CSR.The CSR exhibited 6.8 g/g water-holding capacity, 6.0 g/g waterretention capacity and 5.2 mL/g swelling capacity. Scanning electron microscopic studies revealed that IDF of CSR had coiled rod type structurewith a rugged surface, while SDF had an uneven porous surface.Use of CSR decreased the spread ratio and increased the hardness of biscuits. Addition of CSR above 7.5% adversely affected the taste and texture of biscuits. Use of sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate significantly improved the overall quality of biscuits with 7.5% CSR. Incorporation of 7.5% CSR resulted in 7.8% dietary fiber as against 3.5% in control biscuits.

Effect of replacement of whole-wheat flour with multigrain blend, MGB (chick pea split without husk, barley, soya bean and fenugreek seeds) at 10, 20, 30 and 40 g/100 g on rheological characteristics of whole-wheat flour and quality of north Indian parotta (NIP) making was studied. Use of increasing amount of MGB from 0 to 40 g/100 g increased farinograph water absorption, decreased dough stability, extensograph resistance to extension, extensibility, amylograph peak viscosity and overall quality score of NIP from 53 to 38 for the maximum score of 60. Use of combination of dry gluten powder, sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose separately and in combination significantly improved the overall quality of NIP with 30 g/100 g MGB. Addition of multigrains increased the protein, fat, dietary fiber and mineral contents of north Indian parotta.

Effect of two vegetable oils namely sunflower oil (SFO) and coconut oil (CNO), emulsifiers (sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate and polysorbate-60), and hydrocolloids (guar gum and carboxymethyl cellulose) on rheological, fatty acid profile and quality characteristics of pound cake was studied in comparison with control cake prepared using hydrogenated fat. Use of oils decreased batter viscosity, increased specific gravity and decreased overall quality score of cakes.However, incorporation of additives significantly improved the quality of cakes. The microstructure of cake with combination of identified additives showed a continuous protein matrix and wrapped starch granule. The individually identified emulsifier and hydrocolloid when used in combination yielded cakes having quality characteristics similar to control cake. Fatty acid profile showed that the control cake had 51.3% saturated fatty acids and only 6.5% polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA); SFO cake was rich in PUFA and CNO cake was rich in medium chain fatty acids.

Flaxseed is a versatile functional ingredient owing to its unique nutrient profile. Studies on the effect of substitution of roasted and ground flaxseed (RGF) at 5, 10, 15 and 20% level on the wheat flour dough properties showed that amylograph peak viscosity, farinograph dough stability, extensograph resistance to extension and extensibility values decreased with the increase in the substitution of RGF from 0-20%. The cookie baking test showed a marginal decrease in spread ratio but beyond substitution of 15% RGF the texture and flavour of the cookies was adversely affected. The data on storage characteristics of control and cookies with 15% RGF showed no significant change with respect to acidity of extracted fat and peroxide values due to storage of cookies upto 90 days in metallised polyester pouches at ambient conditions. The gas chromatographic analysis of fatty acid profile indicated that the control cookies contained negligible linolenic acid and the flaxseed cookies contained 4.75 to 5.31% of linolenic acid which showed a marginal decrease over storage. Hence flaxseed could be used as a source of omega-3-fatty acid.

Studies were carried out on the effect of the substitution of 2.5, 5, 7.5 and 10% fenugreek seed powder on the textural and quality characteristics of vermicelli. The stress value increased from0.03–0.037 N/m2, although the stickiness value decreased from 67–48 g with the increase in fenugreek level, respectively. The data on sensory quality characteristics of vermicelli showed that there was an improvement in appearance and strand quality as fenugreek increased.However, at 10% substitution, the mouthfeel and flavor were affected. Vermicelli with 7.5% fenugreek had the highest overall quality score of 33 out of 40. The surface scanning electron micrographs of the raw and cooked control and vermicelli with 7.5% fenugreek showed that the micrograph of vermicelli containing fenugreek had a somewhat thicker matrix than the control, and starch granules were enveloped in a coating of fenugreek gums.

Effect of replacement of wheat flour with 5, 10 and 15% dried moringa leaves (Moringa oleifera Lam) powder (DML) on the rheological, microstructural, nutritional and quality characteristics of cookies was studied. Incorporation of increasing amount of DML from 0 to 15% increased farinograph water absorption and decreased dough stability, amylograph pasting temperature and peak viscosity. Use of DML increased dough hardness and decreased cohesiveness and spread ratio of cookies. Sensory evaluation showed that cookies incorporated with 10% DML powder were acceptable. Microstructure studies showed calcium oxalate crystals in both DML powder and cookies with DML. The starch granules appeared wrapped in cookies with 10 and 15% DML. Protein, iron, calcium, beta-carotene and dietary fiber contents increased with increasing amount of DML from 0 to 15%. The results showed the possibility of utilizing DML to improve the nutritional characteristics of cookies.

Radiation is the most dominant heat transfer mode in an electrical heating oven. A 3D CFD model for an electric heating baking oven was developed. Three different radiation models namely, discrete transfer radiation model (DTRM), surface to surface (S2S) and discrete ordinates (DO) were employed for the simulation of the electrical baking oven. All models predicted almost similar results, which tallied well with the experimental measurements. During the full heating cycle, the oven set-point temperature was reached after 360 s. Lower temperature zones occurred near oven wall due to lower air flow. Based on preliminary evaluation of applicability, the DO radiation model was selected for bread baking simulation and validated with the experimental measurement of bread temperature. Bread simulation was carried out to study the profiles of temperature and starch gelatinization of crust and crumb of the product. This study indicated the baking process to be complete at 1500 s when the temperature of bread-center reached 100 °C.

The effect of replacement of wheat flour with 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% fenugreek seed powder (FSP) on the rheological characteristics of wheat flour and quality of parotta was studied. Increasing FSP from 0 to 7.5% increased farinograph water absorption from 61.8 to 72.2%, amylograph peak viscosity (920–1,250 BU), spread ratio of parotta (31–34.8), decreased extensograph extensibility from 124 to 97 mm and shear force from 1,300 to 1,150 g. However, the values for farinograph stability, extensograph resistance to extension and area increased only up to 5% FSP level. Sensory evaluation showed that parotta with perceptible fenugreek flavor and without adverse effect on the quality characteristics could be produced by adding 5% FSP. The micrographs of parotta dough, outer and middle layers of baked parotta containing 5% FSP showed a thick matrix and starch granules appeared to be coated with fenugreek gum.

Effect of replacement of fat with 25, 50, 75 and 100% sesame oil (on fat basis); 50% sesame oil, hydrocolloids and emulsifiers on the rheological, microstructural, quality characteristics and fatty acid profile of cake was studied. Addition of increasing amount of sesame oil decreased viscosity, increased specific gravity of cake batter; decreased cake volume and overall quality score. Microstructure studies showed disrupted gluten matrix. Among the two different hydrocolloids [hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) and xanthan] and emulsifiers [glycerol monostearate (GMS) and sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate (SSL)] tried, HPMC and SSL increased the batter viscosity, decreased the specific gravity, increased the volume and overall quality score. Use of combination of HPMC and SSL improved significantly the quality characteristics of cake with 50% sesame oil in such a way that the overall quality score was higher than that of the control cake with fat. The microstructure of cake crumb with 50% sesame oil and HPMC showed a smooth structure with less number of cavities and SSL showed a continuous protein matrix. On replacing the fat with 50% sesame oil, there was a decrease in saturated fatty acids and increase in unsaturated fatty acids, particularly linoleic acid. The fatty acid profile of cake with 50% sesame oil was better than the control cake as there was 2.4 times decrease in palmitic acid content and 5.9 times increase in essential fatty acids (EFA) content.

Effect of hydrocolloids like Arabic (AR), guar (GR), xanthan (XN), carrageenan (CG) and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) in combination with emulsifiers such as glycerol monostearate (GMS) and sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate (SSL) on the rheological, microstructural and quality characteristics of eggless cake was studied. Addition of GR to wheat flour in the presence of SSL increased peak viscosity, while in the presence of GMS all hydrocolloids excepting XN increased the peak viscosity. The set back value decreased with the addition of hydrocolloids. Addition of hydrocolloids to wheat flour as well as in the presence of GMS and SSL increased the eggless cake batter viscosity, specific gravity, and XN showed the highest value. Among different hydrocolloids tried, only HPMC improved the eggless cake making characteristics of wheat flour. Use of HPMC increased the overall quality score of eggless cake with GMS to the maximum extent followed in decreasing order by CG and XN. Addition of all the hydrocolloids increased the overall quality of eggless cake with SSL and highest improvement was brought about by HPMC. Microstructure studies of eggless cake crumb with hydrocolloids showed that the starch granules appeared wrapped by XN and HPMC. In eggless cake with combination of HPMC and SSL the protein matrix appeared more uniform.

The effect of replacement of 30% sugar with 0.05% sucralose and of different levels of maltodextrin (MD) on dough rheology and quality of biscuits was studied. The results showed that replacement of sugar with increasing amount of MD from 10 to 40% along with 0.05% sucralose influenced dough rheology. The farinograph water absorption increased up to 20% addition of MD and thereafter decreased. Objective evaluation of biscuits showed that the spread ratio of biscuits with 10% MD was 7.1, 20% MD was 7.8, 30% MD was 9.4 and 40% MD was 10.5, in comparison to control biscuits (9.9) with 30% sugar. The best overall quality score was reported for the control biscuits with 30% sugar, 69 out of the maximum score of 80, followed by 30% MD (65), 40% MD (60.5), 20% MD (54) and 10% MD (49.5). The results showed the possibility of replacing sugar in biscuit with sucralose and MD. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS This article discusses the changes as a result of replacement of sugar with sucralose and maltodextrin (MD) in the rheological characteristics of wheat flour dough. The level of sucralose and MD required to replace sugar from control recipe in order to produce rheological characteristics of wheat flour dough comparable with that of the control has been highlighted in the article. This information will have a practical application in the production of sugar-free soft dough biscuits.

The effect of hydrocolloids – namely Arabic (AR), guar (GR), xanthan (XN), carrageenan (CG) and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) – on the rheological, microstructural and quality characteristics of south Indian parotta was studied separately at the level of 0.5%. Addition of hydrocolloids increased farinograph water absorption. The extensograph resistance to extension at 135 min increased with the addition of hydrocolloids. Addition of XN, GR and CG decreased extensibility, while AR and HPMC increased extensibility. The alveograph maximum over pressure increased, with the exception of AR, and average abscissa at rupture decreased with different hydrocolloids. The amylograph peak viscosity increased with all the hydrocolloids. In the micrographs of dough treated with different hydrocolloids, the starch granules appeared coated with gum, and the coating appeared prominent in the case of dough treated with GR and HPMC. Among the hydrocolloids tried, GR brought about the greatest improvement in the quality of parotta, followed in decreasing order by HPMC, XN, CG and AR. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS In India, demand for the large-scale manufacture of packed parottas is increasing. The beneficial effects of hydrocolloids in parotta-making have not yet been explored. This paper discusses the effect of different hydrocolloids on the rheological characteristics of dough in relation to parotta. The information generated on the use of hydrocolloids that are beneficial for parotta-making will be useful for the large-scale manufacturers of parotta.

In order to explore the possibility of using WPC as a functional ingredient in Indian traditional product – South Indian Parotta investigations were made to study the effect of replacement of wheat flour with 5, 10 and 15% WPC on the farinograph, extensograph, amylograph characteristics of wheat flour, quality of parotta and microstructure of baked parotta. The results showed an increase in farinograph stability, extensograph resistance to extension up to 10% WPC and a decrease in the farinograph water absorption, extensograph extensibility, amylograph peak viscosity, cold paste viscosity, breakdown and setback values with an increase in the level of WPC from 0% to 15%. The quality characteristics of parotta showed that the spread ratio decreased and shear force values increased significantly above 5% level. Control parotta and parotta with 5% WPC were soft, possessed thin and transparent layers whereas parottas beyond 5% WPC had thick, fused and opaque layers. The parottas with 5% WPC were rated good. The quality characteristics of parotta were adversely affected beyond 5% level of WPC. The microstructure of the top and middle layer of baked parotta with 5% WPC showed that there was a disruption in the continuity of the gluten matrix.

Effects of substitution of wheat flour with whey protein concentrate (WPC; 10, 20 or 30%) as an egg replacer were investigated upon the physical properties of cake batter and the quality characteristics of eggless cake. The apparent viscosity of the eggless cake batter decreased as the level of WPC increased, and incorporation of WPC decreased the density of the batter. Photomicrographs of eggless cake batters with WPC showed an increase in the number of air cells and even distribution when compared with the control, indicating a lighter batter. Eggless cake with 20% WPC was rated most highly.

The effects of addition of salt (0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5%), sugar (0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5%), egg (2.5%, 5.0% and 7.5%) and refined groundnut oil (5.0%, 10.0%, 15.0% and 20.0%) on various rheological characteristics of dough, as measured by the farinograph, mixograph, extensograph and Instron universal testing machine, were studied. Addition of increasing amounts of salt, egg and oil increased farinograph stability from 3.5 min for the control sample to 9.5, 4.5 and 6.5 min, respectively and decreased to 3.0 min with sugar. The extensograph ratio figure, area increased with the addition of egg and decreased on addition of oil. The mixograph peak height increased when salt or egg was added, but decreased on addition of oil and addition of sugar produced no effect. Values of apparent biaxial extensional viscosity (ABEV), compressive stress, hardness and cohesiveness increased on addition of salt or egg, but they decreased on addition of sugar or oil. The force decay parameter value decreased with the addition of salt and egg, but increased when sugar or oil was added. The adhesiveness value decreased when salt or egg or oil was added, but increased with sugar; indicating thereby addition of salt or egg produces an increase in the strength and elasticity of the dough, on the other hand, addition of oil decreases the strength and viscosity of the dough.

Studies were carried out to assess the relationship between alveograph characteristics and parotta making quality of wheat flours. Twenty-five commercial wheat flour samples were analysed for their chemical, alveograph and parotta making characteristics. The correlation co-efficient data indicated that among the chemical characteristics of wheat flours, ash content was found to be highly correlated to alveograph index of swelling, G (r = −0.838, P ⩽ 0.001), gluten content and sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) sedimentation value to the maximum over pressure, P (r = 0.951 and r = 0.875, P ⩽ 0.001), and to shear force (r = 0.954 and r = 0.840, P ⩽ 0.001). Among alveograph characteristics, P was highly correlated to shear force of parrotta (r = 0.938, P ⩽ 0.001). Average abscissa at rupture, L to spread ratio (r = 0.754, P ⩽ 0.001). Curve configuration ratio, P/L to all the physical and sensory characteristics of parotta at 1% level. G is correlated to spread ratio (r = 0.914, P ⩽ 0.001), texture (r = 0.928, P ⩽ 0.001), layers (r = 0.934, P ⩽ 0.001) and overall quality score (r = 0.931, P ⩽ 0.001). Deformation energy of dough, W is correlated to spread ratio (r = 0.825, P ⩽ 0.001), texture (r = 0.892, P ⩽ 0.001), layers (r = 0.901, P ⩽ 0.001) and overall quality score (r = 0.872, P ⩽ 0.001) indicating that alveograph G and W values could be considered as the indicators of the overall quality of parotta.

This study investigated the effects on the rheological characteristics of dough and quality of parotta (a traditional South Indian unleavened flat bread) of oxidizing agents (potassium bromate, 20 and 40 ppm; ascorbic acid, 100 and 200 ppm; and potassium iodate, 20 and 40 ppm), reducing agents (potassium metabisulfite, 100 and 200 ppm; and cysteine hydrochloride, 50 and 100 ppm), enzymes (fungal alpha-amylase, 10 and 20 ppm; and proteinase, 10 and 20 ppm) and dry gluten powder (1, 2 and 3%). Addition of oxidizing agents and dry gluten increased values for farinograph stability, extensograph and mixograph areas, apparent biaxial extensional viscosity, compressive stress, hardness and cohesiveness, while reducing agents and enzymes decreased the aforementioned characteristics and increased the force decay parameter and adhesiveness of the dough. Among the additives studied, incorporation of 100 ppm potassium metabisulfite, 50 ppm cysteine hydrochloride and 10 ppm proteinase increased the overall quality score for parotta.

The effects of various additives [xylanase (0.06, 0.012, and 0.018%), gluten (1.5 and 3.0%), ascorbic acid (0.01 and 0.02%), glycerol monostearate, sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate (SSL) (0.25, 0.50%) and glucose oxidase (0.1%)] on the quality of vermicelli made from Triticum aestivum was studied. The results revealed that xylanase at 0.012% produced an improved quality product in terms of increase in cooked weight, expansion in volume of strands, and firm texture without stickiness. The micrograph of vermicelli exhibited a uniform, continuous protein matrix. The yellow index values improved with addition of gluten (3%) and ascorbic acid (0.01%). The gluten added appeared as a prominent strong network in micrographs, imparting strength to the vermicelli as evidenced by higher shear values. SSL (0.5%) gave a firm, discrete product and the protein fibrils displayed a massive network, owing to the strengthening effect. At the level of glucose oxidase used (0.1%), it exerted an adverse effect on the product quality. In general, the additives lowered the cooking loss and the leaching of solids in vermicelli when compared to the control.

Parotta is a wheat flour-based circular and creamish white coloured S. Indian traditional product. It possesses light brown spots on the surface, a soft pliable hand-feel, and a soft, slightly chewy texture, having distinct layers, optimum oiliness, easy breakdown in the mouth, and typical pleasant flavour and aroma. In this study, a sensory score card, based on the above parameters, was prepared to assess the quality of parotta from different commercial sources. Effects of processing conditions on the quality of this product were then studied. The survey of the quality characteristics of parotta from different commercial sources showed variation in the overall quality score (from 40 to 75 of a max. score of 100) indicating a lack of consistency in parotta quality. Parotta dough water absorption was standardized using a farinograph. Effects of mixing period (1, 4 and 8 min), rest period (0, 30 and 60 min), sheeting thickness (2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 mm), baking time (1, 2 and 3 min) and baking temp. (175, 205 and 230C) on the quality of parotta were then studied. The optimum processing conditions were: mixing time, 4.0 min; rest period, 30 min; sheeting thickness, 5 mm; baking time, 2.0 min; and baking temp., 230C. The overall quality score of parotta prepared from flours varying in protein content, quality, dough mixing time and stability was highest at 4.0 min mixing time.

Enzymes are used in the baking and milling industries to control dough properties and improve the quality of finished products. The role of enzymes in the baking process of an unleavened Indian flat bread, namely South Indian parotta, was studied. In this connection, comparisons have been made on the effects of different enzymes such as fungal α-amylase (FA), glucose oxidase (GO), proteinase and xylanase on rheological characteristics and microstructure of parotta dough and its relation to the overall quality characteristics of baked parotta. Addition of GO increased, while FA, xylanase and proteinase decreased farinograph stability. Extensograph resistance to extension increased with GO or xylanase and decreased with FA or proteinase. The extensibility increased with FA, xylanase or proteinase and decreased with GO. The microstructure of parotta dough with different enzymes revealed that the use of proteinase improved the continuous gluten formation compared with the control and the other three enzymes, FA, xylanase and GO. This could be due to the proteinase enzyme breaking larger protein fibrils into smaller fibrils and thus enhancing the continuous gluten film formation. A similar observation was also noted in themicrostructure of baked parotta layers. The microstructure of parotta with proteinase enzyme showed a continuous network of protein films compared with a cluster of protein films in parotta with GO. In the case of xylanase-treated parotta, the starch granules were deformed completely and these deformed starch granules were found sticking to the protein films. In parottas prepared with GO and FA, only a few starch granules with faint outlines were visible. Generally speaking, the overall quality score of parotta decreased to 68 and 64 with the use of FA and, GO respectively, as against the control parotta score of 74. The score increased to 92 and 82 with the addition of proteinase and xylanase, respectively.