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In this study, we compared the impact of audio-, video-, and text-chat interaction on target language use during online learner-learner interaction and on learner affect amongst adolescent learners of German as a foreign language. Repeated measures and ANOVA analyses revealed a high percentage of target language output in all conditions for all four tasks, especially in text- chat. Audio-chatters produced the most output and used the most meaning negotiation, compensation strategies, self-repair and other-repair strategies. Learners in all conditions gained in enjoyment, willingness to communicate and self-efficacy. Anxiety reduced for text-chatters. Task effects partly determined the quantity of L2 output, while condition effects determined meaning-oriented and form-focused processing.

This paper reports on the systematic design and evaluation process of a learning unit for 9th grade students, aimed at learning to write synthesis texts. The unit was based on design principles derived from a review of effective synthesis writing interventions and general principles of effective learning. To evaluate the quality of this unit, we considered three aspects: the validity, feasibility, and effectiveness of its design. The design as construct was based on state-of-the-art knowledge which ensured construct validity. Furthermore, user data indicated that the construct's operationalization was valid: the content and structure of the unit reflected the construct. In addition, teachers were generally positive about the unit's overall feasibility and teacher logs indicated that the lessons were mostly taught as intended. Furthermore, student data indicated that the unit was feasible for students, as well. Finally, the effectiveness of the unit was confirmed by the outcomes of an intervention in five classes, using a switching replication design. Some options for further improvement of the design are also proposed.

The aim of this study was to provide insight into the current practice of writing instruction in Dutch primary education, as a stepping stone for designing and implementing sustainable innovations that could satisfy both practitioners and policymakers. We investigated the extent to which three domain-specific approaches—communicative writing, process writing, and writing strategy instruction—and general features of high-quality instruction were implemented in writing lessons in the upper grades of primary schools. We also examined the learning time for writing, teachers’ views on writing and writing instruction, how efficacious they feel about teaching writing, and how skilled they are in the writing instruction domain. Lastly, we explored relations between classroom practices, learning time, and teachers’ beliefs and skills through correlation analysis, to identify potential aids and constraints to guide innovations in writing education. Participants were 61 teachers of 45 primary schools in the Netherlands. Data were collected through questionnaires, stimulated recall interviews and over 100 lesson observations. Results indicated that the three domain-specific approaches for writing instruction were insufficiently implemented in Dutch classrooms, as were differentiating and the teaching of learning strategies. The allocated learning time was also insufficient, but the realized learning time and the extent to which teachers promoted active learning were satisfactory, providing a strong basis for curricular improvement. Several relations were found between teachers’ classroom practices, learning time, and teachers’ beliefs and skills in the domain of writing instruction. Finally, we discuss options for sustainable innovations of writing instruction in this national context. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved)

This study examined writers’ use of their first language (L1) while writing in their second language (L2). Twenty students each wrote four short argumentative essays in their L1 (Dutch) and four in their L2 (English) under think-aloud conditions. We analysed whether L1 use varied between writers and tasks, and whether it was related to general writing proficiency, L2 proficiency, and L2 text quality. The analysis focused on the occurrence of a number of conceptual activities, including Generating ideas, Planning, and Metacomments. Results indicate that all participants used their L1 while writing in their L2 to some extent, although this varied among conceptual activities. In addition, L2 proficiency was directly related to L2 text quality but was not related to the occurrence of conceptual activities either in L1 or L2. General writing proficiency, on the other hand, has a negative influence on L1 use during L2 writing and a positive effect on L2 use during L2 writing. L1 use during L2 writing is negatively related to L2 text quality, at least for Metacomments. Finally, L2 use appears to be positively related to L2 text quality for Goal setting, Generating ideas, and Structuring, but negatively related to L2 text quality for Self-instructions and Metacomments. The theoretical relevance of these findings is also discussed.

This study examines whether writers vary how they write under influence of the changing task situation when writing in a second language (L2) and, if so, whether differences in the way they write are related to variations in text quality. Twenty first year students wrote four texts each in their L2 (English) under think-aloud conditions. The analysis focused on four cognitive activities: Reading the assignment and sources, Planning, Generating ideas and Formulating. Results indicate that, on average, the occurrence of each activity varies during the writing process. In addition, writers differ in the extent that they vary their process execution (i.e., the way they apply different activities) while writing. These differences, however, depend on the moment in the writing process, and on the activity being carried out. In general, writers’ behaviour is rather stable between tasks, at least at the start of the writing process. Finally, results indicate that the correlation between each activity and text quality varies during the writing process and also differs somewhat between tasks.

This chapter explores the generalizability of ratings on text quality of ninth-grade students in pre-university education and first-year university students. For first-year university students, one does not need to rate as many texts as for ninth-graders. Especially, when writing in a foreign language, first-year students prove to be very stable writers. The stability of text quality scores appears to depend on the way texts are rated as well. So-called analytic scoring schemes seem to result in reliable but topic-dependent text quality scores. Holistic ratings, on the other hand, appear to give raters less support (resulting in a lower inter-rater agreement) but result in less topic-dependent scores. Hence, in order to generalize, writers do not need to write that many texts if these texts are holistically rated. Implications of these results for experimental studies on writing and educational effectiveness of writing pedagogies are discussed. Keywords:analytic scoring schemes; first-year students; generalizability; holistic ratings; ninth-graders; text quality scores; writing skills

There have been many studies into the relation between cognitive processes during writing in the mother tongue (L1) and writing in a second or foreign language (L2). As task situations during writing continuously change, so does the probability of occurrence of cognitive activities. This chapter focuses on the orchestration of formulating activities during writing in L1 and L2, and their relation with text quality. It shows that the occurrence of formulating activities differs between L1 and L2. The occurrence of formulating activities in L1 follows a more complex pattern than the occurrence of formulating in L2. Furthermore, the correlation between formulating activities is more complex in L1 than in L2. Finally, this correlation appears to be highly task dependent in L1 but not in L2. Keywords: cognitive processes; foreign language; formulating activities; mother tongue; text quality