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Metastatic cancer cells cross endothelial barriers and travel through the blood or lymphatic fluid to pre‑metastatic niches, leading to their colonisation. 'S' stereoisomer 12S‑hydroxy‑5Z,8Z,10E,14Z‑eicosatetraenoic acid [12(S)‑HETE] is secreted by a variety of cancer cell types and has been indicated to open up these barriers. In the present study, another aspect of the endothelial unlocking mechanism was elucidated. This was achieved by investigating 12(S)‑HETE‑treated lymph endothelial cells (LECs) with regard to their expression and mutual interaction with v‑rel avian reticuloendotheliosis viral oncogene homolog A (RELA), intercellular adhesion molecule 1, SRY‑box transcription factor 18 (SOX18), prospero homeobox 1 (PROX1) and focal adhesion kinase (FAK). These key players of LEC retraction, which is a prerequisite for cancer cell transit into vasculature, were analysed using western blot analysis, reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR and transfection with small interfering (si)RNA. The silencing of a combination of these signalling and executing molecules using siRNA, or pharmacological inhibition with defactinib and Bay11‑7082, extended the mono‑culture experiments to co‑culture settings using HCT116 colon cancer cell spheroids that were placed on top of LEC monolayers to measure their retraction using the validated 'circular chemorepellent‑induced defect' assay. 12(S)‑HETE was indicated to induce the upregulation of the RELA/SOX18 feedback loop causing the subsequent phosphorylation of FAK, which fed back to RELA/SOX18. Therefore, 12(S)‑HETE was demonstrated to be associated with circuits involving RELA, SOX18 and FAK, which transduced signals causing the retraction of LECs. The FAK‑inhibitor defactinib and the NF‑κB inhibitor Bay11‑7082 attenuated LEC retraction additively, which was similar to the suppression of FAK and PROX1 (the target of SOX18) by the transfection of respective siRNAs. FAK is an effector molecule at the distal end of a pro‑metastatic signalling cascade. Therefore, targeting the endothelial‑specific activity of FAK through the pathway demonstrated herein may provide a potential therapeutic method to combat cancer dissemination via vascular routes.

Mechanisms how colorectal cancer (CRC) cells penetrate blood micro-vessel endothelia and metastasise is poorly understood. To study blood endothelial cell (BEC) barrier breaching by CRC emboli, an in vitro assay measuring BEC-free areas underneath SW620 cell spheroids, so called “circular chemorepellent induced defects” (CCIDs, appearing in consequence of endothelial retraction), was adapted and supported by Western blotting, EIA-, EROD- and luciferase reporter assays. Inhibition of ALOX12 or NF-κB in SW620 cells or BECs, respectively, caused attenuation of CCIDs. The FDA approved drugs vinpocetine [inhibiting ALOX12-dependent 12(S)-HETE synthesis], ketotifen [inhibiting NF-κB], carbamazepine and fenofibrate [inhibiting 12(S)-HETE and NF-κB] significantly attenuated CCID formation at low μM concentrations. In the 5-FU-resistant SW620-R/BEC model guanfacine, nifedipine and proadifen inhibited CCIDs stronger than in the naive SW620/BEC model. This indicated that in SW620-R cells formerly silent (yet unidentified) genes became expressed and targetable by these drugs in course of resistance acquisition. Fenofibrate, and the flavonoids hispidulin and apigenin, which are present in medicinal plants, spices, herbs and fruits, attenuated CCID formation in both, naive- and resistant models. As FDA-approved drugs and food-flavonoids inhibited established and acquired intravasative pathways and attenuated BEC barrier-breaching in vitro, this warrants testing of these compounds in CRC models in vivo.

Lymph node metastasis of breast cancer is a clinical marker of poor prognosis. Yet, there exist no therapies targeting mechanisms of intravasation into lymphatics. Herein we report on an effect of the antidyslipidemic drug fenofibrate with vasoprotective activity, which attenuates breast cancer intravasation in vitro, and describe the potential mechanisms. To measure intravasation in a 3-dimensional co-culture model MDA-MB231 and MCF-7 breast cancer spheroids were placed on immortalised lymphendothelial cell (LEC) monolayers. This provokes the formation of circular chemorepellent induced defects (CCIDs) in the LEC barrier resembling entry ports for the intravasating tumour. Furthermore, the expression of adhesion molecules ICAM-1, CD31 and FAK was investigated in LECs by western blotting as well as cell-cell adhesion and NF-κB activity by respective assays. In MDA-MB231 cells the activity of CYP1A1 was measured by EROD assay. Fenofibrate inhibited CCID formation in the MDA-MB231/LEC- and MCF-7/LEC models and the activity of NF-κB, which in turn downregulated ICAM-1 in LECs and the adhesion of cancer cells to LECs. Furthermore, CD31 and the activity of FAK were inhibited. In MDA-MB231 cells, fenofibrate attenuated CYP1A1 activity. Combinations with other FDA-approved drugs, which reportedly inhibit different ion channels, attenuated CCID formation additively or synergistically. In summary, fenofibrate inhibited NF-κB and ICAM-1, and inactivated FAK, thereby attenuating tumour intravasation in vitro. A combination with other FDA-approved drugs further improved this effect. Our new concept may lead to a novel therapy for cancer patients.

Retraction of mesenchymal stromal cells supports the invasion of colorectal cancer cells (CRC) into the adjacent compartment. CRC-secreted 12(S)-HETE enhances the retraction of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and therefore, 12(S)-HETE may enforce invasivity of CRC. Understanding the mechanisms of metastatic CRC is crucial for successful intervention. Therefore, we studied pro-invasive contributions of stromal cells in physiologically relevant three-dimensional in vitro assays consisting of CRC spheroids, CAFs, extracellular matrix and endothelial cells, as well as in reductionist models. In order to elucidate how CAFs support CRC invasion, tumour spheroid-induced CAF retraction and free intracellular Ca2+ levels were measured and pharmacological-or siRNA-based inhibition of selected signalling cascades was performed. CRC spheroids caused the retraction of CAFs, generating entry gates in the adjacent surrogate stroma. The responsible trigger factor 12(S)-HETE provoked a signal, which was transduced by PLC, IP3, free intracellular Ca2+, Ca(2+)calmodulin-kinase-II, RHO/ROCK and MYLK which led to the activation of myosin light chain 2, and subsequent CAF mobility. RHO activity was observed downstream as well as upstream of Ca2+ release. Thus, Ca2+ signalling served as central signal amplifier. Treatment with the FDA-approved drugs carbamazepine, cinnarizine, nifedipine and bepridil HCl, which reportedly interfere with cellular calcium availability, inhibited CAF-retraction. The elucidation of signalling pathways and identification of approved inhibitory drugs warrant development of intervention strategies targeting tumour-stroma interaction.

Curcumin is a natural polyphenolic compound with pronounced anticancer properties, despite its low bioavailability caused by extensive glucuronidation and sulfation. Information on the cellular uptake mechanisms and their contribution to the anticancer effects of curcumin and its biotransformation products is limited. The present study, therefore, investigated the role of organic anion‑transporting polypeptides (OATPs) in the cellular uptake of curcumin and its major metabolites in OATP‑expressing Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) and human ZR‑75‑1 breast cancer cells. The uptake rates for curcumin in OATP1B1‑, OATP1B3‑ and OATP2B1‑transfected CHO cells were 2‑ to 3‑fold higher than wild‑type cells. Curcumin sulfate was transported by all three OATPs, although to a much lesser extent, while uptake of tetrahydrocurcumin was the highest but only via OATP1B1 and OATP1B3. Notably, curcumin glucuronide did not exhibit any affinity for these OATPs. The increased mRNA levels of OATP1B1 in wild‑type human breast cancer ZR‑75‑1 cells compared with OATP1B1 knockdown cells was associated with a higher initial uptake of curcumin and tetrahydrocurcumin leading to decreased IC50 values. In conclusion, our data revealed that OATPs act as cellular uptake transporters for curcumin and its major metabolites, and this may also be applicable to patients undergoing cancer therapy.

Metastasising breast cancer cells communicate with adjacent lymph endothelia, intravasate and disseminate through lymphatic routes, colonise lymph nodes and finally metastasize to distant organs. Thus, understanding and blocking intravasation may attenuate the metastatic cascade at an early step. As a trigger factor, which causes the retraction of lymph endothelial cells (LECs) and opens entry ports for tumour cell intravasation, MDA-MB231 breast cancer cells secrete the pro-metastatic arachidonic acid metabolite, 12S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,10E,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid [12(S)-HETE]. In the current study, treatment of LECs with 12(S)-HETE upregulated the expression of the transcription factors SRY-related HMG-box 18 (SOX18) and prospero homeobox protein 1 (PROX1), which determine endothelial development. Thus, whether they have a role in LEC retraction was determined using a validated intravasation assay, small interfering RNA mediated knockdown of gene expression, and mRNA and protein expression analyses. Specific inhibition of SOX18 or PROX1 significantly attenuated in vitro intravasation of MDA-MB231 spheroids through the LEC barrier and 12(S)-HETE-triggered signals were transduced by the high and low affinity receptors, 12(S)-HETE receptor and leukotriene B4 receptor 2. In addition, the current findings indicate that there is crosstalk between SOX18 and nuclear factor κ-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells, which was demonstrated to contribute to MDA-MB231/lymph endothelial intravasation. The present data demonstrate that the endothelial-specific and lymph endothelial-specific transcription factors SOX18 and PROX1 contribute to LEC retraction.

RELA, RELB, CREL, NFKB1 and NFKB2, and the upstream regulators NEMO and NIK were knocked-down in lymph endothelial cells (LECs) and in MDA-MB231 breast cancer spheroids to study the contribution of NF-κB in vascular barrier breaching. Suppression of RELA, NFKB1 and NEMO inhibited "circular chemo-repellent induced defects" (CCIDs), which form when cancer cells cross the lymphatic vasculature, by ~20-30%. Suppression of RELB, NFKB2 and NIK inhibited CCIDs by only ~10-15%. In MDA-MB231 cells RELA and NFKB1 constituted MMP1 expression, which caused the activation of PAR1 in adjacent LECs. The knock-down of MMP1 in MDA-MB231 spheroids and pharmacological inhibition of PAR1 in LECs inhibited CCID formation by ~30%. Intracellular Ca(2+) release in LECs, which was induced by recombinant MMP1, was suppressed by the PAR1 inhibitor SCH79797, thereby confirming a functional intercellular axis: RELA/NFKB1 - MMP1 (MDA-MB231) - PAR1 (LEC). Recombinant MMP1 induced PAR1-dependent phosphorylation of MLC2 and FAK in LECs, which is indicative for their activity and for directional cell migration such as observed during CCID formation. The combined knock-down of the NF-κB pathways in LECs and MDA-MB231 spheroids inhibited CCIDs significantly stronger than knock-down in either cell type alone. Also the knock-down of ICAM-1 in LECs (a NF-κB endpoint with relevance for CCID formation) and knock-down of MMP1 in MDA-MB231 augmented CCID inhibition. This evidences that in both cell types NF-κB significantly and independently contributes to tumour-mediated breaching of the lymphatic barrier. Hence, inflamed tumour tissue and/or vasculature pose an additional threat to cancer progression.

Flavonoids, present in fruits, vegetables and traditional medicinal plants, show anticancer effects in experimental systems and are reportedly non-toxic. This is a favorable property for long term strategies for the attenuation of lymph node metastasis, which may effectively improve the prognostic states in breast cancer. Hence, we studied two flavonoids, apigenin and luteolin exhibiting strong bio-activity in various test systems in cancer research and are readily available on the market. This study has further advanced the mechanistic understanding of breast cancer intravasation through the lymphatic barrier. Apigenin and luteolin were tested in a three-dimensional (3-D) assay consisting of MDA-MB231 breast cancer spheroids and immortalized lymph endothelial cell (LEC) monolayers. The 3-D model faithfully resembles the intravasation of breast cancer emboli through the lymphatic vasculature. Western blot analysis, intracellular Ca2+ determination, EROD assay and siRNA transfection revealed insights into mechanisms of intravasation as well as the anti-intravasative outcome of flavonoid action. Both flavonoids suppressed pro-intravasative trigger factors in MDA-MB231 breast cancer cells, specifically MMP1 expression and CYP1A1 activity. A pro-intravasative contribution of FAK expression in LECs was established as FAK supported the retraction of the LEC monolayer upon contact with cancer cells thereby enabling them to cross the endothelial barrier. As mechanistic basis, MMP1 caused the phosphorylation (activation) of FAK at Tyr397 in LECs. Apigenin and luteolin prevented MMP1-induced FAK activation, but not constitutive FAK phosphorylation. Luteolin, unlike apigenin, inhibited MMP1-induced Ca2+ release. Free intracellular Ca2+ is a central signal amplifier triggering LEC retraction through activation of the mobility protein MLC2, thereby enhancing intravasation. FAK activity and Ca2+ levels did not correlate. This implicates that the pro-intravasative contribution of FAK and of Ca2+ release in LECs was independent of each other and explains the better anti-intravasative effects of luteolin in vitro. In specific formulations, flavonoid concentrations causing significant anti-intravasative effects, can certainly be achieved in vivo. As the therapeutic strategy has to be based on permanent flavonoid treatment both the beneficial and adverse effects have to be investigated in future studies.

The oviductal epithelium is crucial for the integrity of the female organ. Previously we got evidence that the surface proteome of oviductal epithelial cells (Oecs) is promptly altered in response to insemination and thus suggested that this early phase plays a notable regulatory role in maintaining cellular function. This study further aimed to assess the effect of semen on the cellular and molecular mechanisms in rabbit Oecs. A quantitative gel-based proteomic approach was applied to analyze changes at three time points (0 h, 1 h, 2 h) after intrauterine insemination (IUI) compared to time matched controls. Within two hours the abundance of 22 protein species was evidently altered in the intracellular fraction. Functional analysis revealed that the proteins were primarily involved in proteostasis as well as metabolic processes. The analysis of phosphoproteins specified a role of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling molecules. Concurrently, semen increased oviduct-specific glycoprotein (OVGP1) secretion. A correlation between OVGP1 abundance and microtubule-associated proteins 1A/1B–light chain 3 lipidation was observed. The localization and changes in abundance of selected proteins were corroborated by antibody-based methods. These results clearly show that the early phase of interaction acts as a trigger for cellular adaptation to meet an altered demand in the female organ. Significance The oviductal epithelium and its secreted proteins exert a pivotal role in reproductive processes, including the final maturation of male gametes. Thereby, the regulation and subsequently the functionality of the oviductal epithelial cell layer are important factors for the establishment of the appropriate milieu in the female reproductive tract. Notably, male gametes themselves have been shown to be an extrinsic modulatory factor of the oviductal epithelium. Accordingly a comprehensive knowledge about the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms in the epithelial cells is of interest, also with regard to in vitro purposes. So far, the role of the early phase of interaction in the female organ has not been considered in detail. To get a further insight into the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms, herein we analyzed the effect of semen on oviductal epithelial cells (Oecs) on the intracellular proteome level within the first two hours after insemination. The present study revealed a directed response of Oecs in vivo and disclosed intracellular pathways that are affected by the interplay between semen and the female reproductive tract. The prompt adaptation of the secretory activity and remodeling of the oviductal epithelium was accompanied by the concerted alterations of protein species that are primarily involved in the maintenance of cellular homeostasis. Besides emphasizing the importance of the early interaction phase for subsequent reproductive processes, the gained knowledge might further be implemented for in vitro applications as well.

Retraction of mesenchymal stromal cells supports the invasion of colorectal cancer cells (CRC) into the adjacent compartment. CRC-secreted 12(S)-HETE enhances the retraction of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and therefore, 12(S)-HETE may enforce invasivity of CRC. Understanding the mechanisms of metastatic CRC is crucial for successful intervention. Therefore, we studied pro-invasive contributions of stromal cells in physiologically relevant three-dimensional in vitro assays consisting of CRC spheroids, CAFs, extracellular matrix and endothelial cells, as well as in reductionist models. In order to elucidate how CAFs support CRC invasion, tumour spheroid-induced CAF retraction and free intracellular Ca2+ levels were measured and pharmacological- or siRNA-based inhibition of selected signalling cascades was performed. CRC spheroids caused the retraction of CAFs, generating entry gates in the adjacent surrogate stroma. The responsible trigger factor 12(S)-HETE provoked a signal, which was transduced by PLC, IP3, free intracellular Ca2+, Ca2+-calmodulin-kinase-II, RHO/ROCK and MYLK which led to the activation of myosin light chain 2, and subsequent CAF mobility. RHO activity was observed downstream as well as upstream of Ca2+ release. Thus, Ca2+ signalling served as central signal amplifier. Treatment with the FDA-approved drugs carbamazepine, cinnarizine, nifedipine and bepridil HCl, which reportedly interfere with cellular calcium availability, inhibited CAF-retraction. The elucidation of signalling pathways and identification of approved inhibitory drugs warrant development of intervention strategies targeting tumour–stroma interaction. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00018-016-2441-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.