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This paper presents an overview of how calcium interacts with the various essential nutrients within an environment of cellular and hormonal interactions for the purpose of increasing bioavailability to the human body. One example of such interactions can be illustrated with calcium homeostasis. This paper gives an in-depth discussion on the possible interactive permutations with various nutrients and factors leading to the promotion of calcium bioavailability to the body. The review hopes to provide further insights into how calcium supplement formulations can be improved to better influence its bioavailability in the human body., {"references":["Turnlund, J.R. 1999, 'Nutrition in health and disease'. 9th ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins Publ., pp. 241–252.","Coxam, V. 2007, 'Current data with inulin-type fructans and calcium, targeting bone health in adults', The Journal of Nutrition, vol 137, no. 11 (Suppl), pp. 2527S-2533S.","Lindsay, R., Christiansen, C., Einhorn, T.A., Hart, D.M., Ljunghall, S., Mautalen, C.A., Meunier, P.J., Morii, H., Mundy, G.R., Rapado, A. and Stevenson, J. 1997, 'Who are candidates for prevention and treatment for osteoporosis?', Osteoporosis International, vol 7, no. 1, pp.1-6.","Yergey, A.L., Abrams, S.A., Vieira, N.E., Aldroubi, A., Marini, J. and Sidbury, J.B. 1994, 'Determination of fractional absorption of dietary calcium in humans', Journal of Nutrition, vol 124, no. 5, pp.674-682.","Tanrattana, C., Charoenphandhu, N., Limlomwongse, L. and Krishnamra, N. 2004, 'Prolactin directly stimulated the solvent drag-induced calcium transport in the duodenum of female rats', Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)-Biomembranes, vol 1665, no. 1, pp.81-91.","Pansu, D., Bellaton, C., Roche, C. and Bronner, F. 1983, 'Duodenal and ileal calcium absorption in the rat and effects of vitamin D', American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology, vol 244, no. 6, pp.G695-G700.","Cummings, J.H., Macfarlane, G.T. and Englyst, H.N. 2001, 'Prebiotic digestion and fermentation', The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol 73, no. 2, pp.415s-420s.","Cashman K. 2003, 'Prebiotics and calcium bioavailability', Current Issues In Intestinal Microbiology, vol 4, no. 1, pp.21–32.","Cashman, K.D. 2002, 'Calcium intake, calcium bioavailability and bone health', British journal of Nutrition, vol 87, S2, pp.S169-S177.\n[10]\tCashman, K.D. 2006, 'A prebiotic substance persistently enhances intestinal calcium absorption and increases bone mineralization in young adolescents', Nutrition Reviews, vol 64, no. 4, pp.189-196.\n[11]\tRemesy, C., Levrat, M.A., Gamet, L. and Demigné, C. 1993, 'Cecal fermentations in rats fed oligosaccharides (inulin) are modulated by dietary calcium level', American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology, vol 264, no. 5, pp.G855-G862.\n[12]\tOhta, A., Ohtsuki, M., Baba, S., Adachi, T., Sakata, T. and Sakaguchi, E. 1995, 'Calcium and magnesium absorption from the colon and rectum are increased in rats fed fructo-oligosaccharides', The Journal of Nutrition, vol 125, no. 9, pp. 2417-2424.\n[13]\tLutz, T. and Scharrer, E. 1991, 'Effect of short‐chain fatty acids on calcium absorption by the rat colon', Experimental Physiology, vol 76, no. 4, pp.615-618.\n[14]\tZafar, T.A., Weaver, C.M., Zhao, Y., Martin, B.R. and Wastney, M.E. 2004, 'Nondigestible oligosaccharides increase calcium absorption and suppress bone resorption in ovariectomized rats', The Journal of Nutrition, vol 134, no. 2, pp.399-402.\n[15]\tScholz-Ahrens, K.E., Schaafsma, G., van den Heuvel, E.G. and Schrezenmeir, J. 2001, 'Effects of prebiotics on mineral metabolism', The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol 73, no. 2, pp.459s-464s.\n[16]\tBlaine, J., Chonchol, M. and Levi, M. 2014, 'Renal control of calcium, phosphate and magnesium homeostasis', Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, vol 10, no. 7, pp.1257-1272.\n[17]\tKopic, S and Geibel, JP. 2013, 'Gastric acid, calcium absorption and their impact on bone health', Physiological Reviews, vol 93, no. 1, pp. 189-268.\n[18]\tNguyen, T.M., Lieberherr, M., Fritsch, J., Guillozo, H., Alvarez, M.L., Fitouri, Z., Jehan, F. and Garabédian, M. 2004, 'The rapid effects of 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 require the vitamin D receptor and influence 24-hydroxylase activity: studies in human skin fibroblasts bearing vitamin D receptor mutations', Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol 279, no. 9, pp.7591-7597.\n[19]\tSone, T., Kerner, S. and Pike, J.W. 1991, 'Vitamin D receptor interaction with specific DNA association as a 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3-modulated heterodimer', Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol 266, no. 34, pp.23296-23305.\n[20]\tSheikh, M.S., Ramirez, A., Emmett, M., Santa Ana, C., Schiller, L.R. and Fordtran, J.S. 1988, 'Role of vitamin D-dependent and vitamin D-independent mechanisms in absorption of food calcium', Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol 81, no. 1, p.126.\n[21]\tMee, A.P., Hoyland, J.A., Braidman, I.P., Freemont, A.J., Davies, M. and Mawer, E.B. 1996, 'Demonstration of vitamin D receptor transcripts in actively resorbing osteoclasts in bone sections', Bone, vol 18, no. 4, pp.295-299.\n[22]\tKoshihara, Y., Hoshi, K., Ishibashi, H. and Shiraki, M. 1996, 'Vitamin K2 promotes 1α,25(OH)2 vitamin D3-induced mineralization in human periosteal osteoblasts', Calcified Tissue International, vol 59, no. 6, pp.466-473.\n[23]\tKumar, R., Schaefer, J., Grande, J.P. and Roche, P.C. 1994, 'Immunolocalization of calcitriol receptor, 24-hydroxylase cytochrome P-450, and calbindin D28k in human kidney', American Journal of Physiology-Renal Physiology, vol 266, no. 3, pp.F477-F485.\n[24]\tHoenderop, J.G., van der Kemp, A.W., Hartog, A., van de Graaf, S.F., van Os, C.H., Willems, P.H. and Bindels, R.J. 1999, 'Molecular identification of the apical Ca2+ channel in 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3-responsive epithelia', Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol 274, no. 13, pp.8375-8378.\n[25]\tMundy, G.R. and Guise, T.A. 1999, 'Hormonal control of calcium homeostasis', Clinical Chemistry, vol 45, no. 8, pp.1347-1352.\n[26]\tKraenzlin, M.E. and Meier, C. 2011, 'Parathyroid hormone analogues in the treatment of osteoporosis', Nature Reviews Endocrinology, vol 7, no. 11, pp.647-656.\n[27]\tFraser, D.R. and Kodicek, E. 1973, 'Regulation of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol-1-hydroxylase activity in kidney by parathyroid hormone', Nature, vol 241, no. 110, pp.163-166.\n[28]\tVan Abel, M., Hoenderop, J.G., van der Kemp, A.W., Friedlaender, M.M., van Leeuwen, J.P. and Bindels, R.J. 2005, 'Coordinated control of renal Ca2+ transport proteins by parathyroid hormone', Kidney International, vol 68, no. 4, pp.1708-1721.\n[29]\tHuang, J.C., Sakata, T., Pfleger, L.L., Bencsik, M., Halloran, B.P., Bikle, D.D. and Nissenson, R.A. 2004, 'PTH differentially regulates expression of RANKL and OPG', Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, vol 19, no. 2, pp.235-244.\n[30]\tLocklin, R.M., Khosla, S., Turner, R.T. and Riggs, B.L. 2003, 'Mediators of the biphasic responses of bone to intermittent and continuously administered parathyroid hormone', Journal of Cellular Biochemistry, vol 89, no. 1, pp.180-190.\n[31]\tBrown, E.M. and MacLeod, R.J. 2001, 'Extracellular calcium sensing and extracellular calcium signaling', Physiological Reviews, vol 81, no. 1, pp.239-297.\n[32]\tRodríguez-Ortiz, M.E., Canalejo, A., Herencia, C., Martínez-Moreno, J.M., Peralta-Ramírez, A., Perez-Martinez, P., Navarro-González, J.F., Rodríguez, M., Peter, M., Gundlach, K. and Steppan, S. 2013, 'Magnesium modulates parathyroid hormone secretion and upregulates parathyroid receptor expression at 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D. 2008, 'The role of the calcium-sensing receptor in the pathophysiology of secondary hyperparathyroidism', Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, vol 1, no.1 (Suppl), pp. i7-i11."]}

There are numerous nutritional supplements, such as multivitamins and nutrition drinks, in the market today. Many of these supplements are expensive and tend to be driven commercially by business decisions and big marketing budgets. Many of the costs are ultimately borne by the end user in the quest for keeping to a healthy lifestyle. This paper proposes a system with a list of ten determinants to gauge how to decide the value of various supplements. It suggests variables such as composition, safety, efficacy and bioavailability, as well as several other considerations. These guidelines can help to tackle many of the issues that people of all ages face in the way that they receive essential nutrients. The system also aims to promote and improve the safety and choice of foods and supplements. In so doing, the system aims to promote the individual's or population's control over their own health and reduce the growing health care burden on the society., {"references":["R. D. Semba, \"The discovery of vitamins\", International Journal of Vitamins and Nutrition Research, vol. 82, pp. 310-315, 2013. DOI: 10.1024/0300-9831/a000124.","I. J. Martins, \"Diabetes and organ dysfunction in the developing and developed world\", Global Journal of Medical Research F, vol. 15, no. 1, 2015.","D. C. S. Lim, E.Y. M. Yeo and W. Y. Tan, \"Combinatory Nutrition Supplementation – a case for increasing calcium bioavailability\", World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology Conference on Nutrition, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 2017.","T. Kobark, \"Essential nutrition\", eds. W. Mitchell, C. Mach and C. Mitchell, Intellectual Properties Publ., 2011, San Diego, USA.","D. C. S. Lim, \"Nutrition supplementation as a strategic asset\", Cloud Futures Economic Forum, Sept 2016, Wuxi, China.","D. Bensky, \"Chinese herbal medicine: materia medica\", Eastland Press, 2004.","B. Holst, G. Williamson, \"Nutrients and phytochemicals: from bioavailability to bioefficacy beyond antioxidants\", Current Opinion in Biotechnology, vol.19, pp.73-82, 2008.","P. J. Aggett, \"Population reference intakes and micronutrient bioavailability: a European perspective\", American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 91(suppl), pp. 1433S-1437S.","M. Shayeghi, G. O. Latunde-Dada, J.S. Oakhill, A. H. Laftah, K. Takeuchi, N. Halliday, Y. Khan, A. Warley, F.E. McCann, R.C. Hider, D.M. Frazer, G.J. Anderson, C.D. Vulpe, R.J. Simpson, A.T. McKie, \"Identification of an intestinal heme transporter\", Cell, vol. 122, no.5, pp. 789-801, 2015.\n[10]\tM.P. Hannon-Fletcher, N.C. Armstrong, J.M. Scott, K. Pentieva, I. Bradbury, M. Ward, J.J. Strain, A.A. Dunn, A.M. Molloy, M.A. Kerr, H. McNulty, \"Determining bioavailability of food folates in a controlled intervention study\", American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 80, no.4, pp. 911-918, 2005. \n[11]\tR. M. Winkels, I. A. Brouwer, E. Siebelink, M. B. Katan, P. Verhoef, \"Bioavailability of food folates is 80% of that of folic acid\", American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 85, no. 2, pp. 465-473, 2007.\n[12]\tM. S. Rahman, \"Food stability determined by macro-micro region concept in the state diagram and by defining a critical temperature\", Journal of Food Engineering, vol 99, is 4, pp412 – 416, 2010.\n[13]\tS. A. French, M. Story, D. Neumark-Sztainer, J. A. Fulke Hannan, \"Fast food restaurant use among adolescents: with nutrient intake, food choices and behavior psycho-social variables\", International Journal of Obesity, vol. 25, no.12, pp. 1823-1833, 2001.\n[14]\tUSDA, \"Food safety\", https://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usda/. Accessed on 28 October 2016.\n[15]\tK. L. Penniston, S. A. Tanumihardjo, \"The acute and chronic toxic effects of vitamin A1,2,3,4\", The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 83, no. 2, pp. 191-201, 2006.\n[16]\tCafé Seventy, http://www.cafeseventy.com accessed on 29 October 2016.\n[17]\tC.L. Rock, J. L. Lovalvo, C. Emenhiser, M.T. Ruffin, S.W. Flatt, S.J. Schwartz, \"Bioavailability of ß-carotene is lower in raw than in processed carrots and spinach in women\", The Journal of Nutrition, vol. 128, no. 5, pp. 913-916, 1998."]}

The world is facing a growing food crisis. The concerns of food nutritional value, food safety and food security are becoming increasingly real. There is also a direct relationship to the risk of diseases, particularly chronic diseases, to the food we consume. So, there are increasing concerns about the modern day food ecosystem creating foods that can provide the nutritional components for organ function sustenance, as well as, taking a serious view on diet-related diseases. This paper addresses some of the above concerns and gives an overview of the current global situation relating to food nutrition and safety. The paper reviews nutritional aspects of food today compared to those of the last century, compares whole foods found in supermarkets versus those organically grown, as well as population behaviour towards food choices. It provides scientific insights into the effects of some of the global trends such as climate change and other changes environmental changes, and presents what individuals and corporations are doing to use the latest nutritional technologies as strategic assets. Finally, it briefly highlights some of the innovative solutions that are being applied to address several of the above concerns., {"references":["World Health Organization Report 2002, \"Globalization, diets and non-communicable diseases\", Accessed on 14 November 2016 .","Lim. C.S. 2016, \"Nutrition innovations for the food and beverage industry\", SME Conference 2016, Singapore.","Forbes Report 2016, \"The causes and costs of absenteeism in the workplace\", Forbes.com.","Latham, M.C. 1997, \"Human nutrition in the developing world\". Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).","Lim, C.S. 2016, \"Nutrition & food safety as strategic assets.\" Cloud Future Economic Forum, China.","Thomas, D. 2003, 'A study on the mineral depletion of the foods available to us as a nation over the period 1940 to 1991', Nutrition and Health, vol 17, no. 2, pp. 85-115.","McCance, R.A. and Widdowson, E.M. 1940, The chemical composition of foods. 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New York: Dekker, pp.141–159.\n[44]\tThangarajan, R., Bolan, N.S., Tian, G., Naidu, R. and Kunhikrishnan, A. 2013, \"Role of organic amendment application on greenhouse gas emission from soil\", Science of the Total Environment, 465, pp.72-96.\n[45]\tKhaliq, A. and Abbasi, M.K. 2015, \"Improvements in the physical and chemical characteristics of degraded soils supplemented with organic–inorganic amendments in the Himalayan region of Kashmir, Pakistan\", Catena, vol 126, pp.209-219.\n[46]\tLeroy, B.L.M., Herath, H.M.S.K., Sleutel, S., De Neve, S., Gabriels, D., Reheul, D. and Moens, M. 2008, \"The quality of exogenous organic matter: short‐term effects on soil physical properties and soil organic matter fractions\", Soil Use and Management, vol 24, no. 2, pp.139-147.\n[47]\tCelik, I., Ortas, I. and Kilic, S. 2004, \"Effects of compost, mycorrhiza, manure and fertilizer on some physical properties of a Chromoxerert soil\", Soil and Tillage Research, vol 78, no. 1, pp.59-67.\n[48]\tDespommier, D. 2011, \"The vertical farm: controlled environment agriculture carried out in tall buildings would create greater food safety and security for large urban populations\", Journal of Consumer Protection and Food Safety, vol 6, no. 2, pp.233-236.\n[49]\tLim, C.S., Teo, N.Z., Tan, S.P., Yeo, C. 2014 \"Study of eating habits & exercise in the workforce\", Singapore Polytechnic, Singapore."]}