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Damage costs from coastal flooding are high and are expected to increase further due to rising sea levels. The associated risks suggest a need for developing methodologies and models to assess damage costs in coastal areas as a basis for decision-making on climate change adaptation. The accuracy of damage cost estimates is critical in cost-effective decision-making on adaptation measures, reflecting climate hazards, flood levels, and associated damage costs. However, detailed models require extended work compared to simpler models due to demands on input data, including land use, damage costs, and adaptation options and costs. In the paper, varying levels of resolution, damage costs and flood models are assessed for coastal flooding risks for two Danish urban areas. Two damage cost models are used: a detailed, context-specific model using local high-resolution land use- and flood damage cost data and a less detailed model with lower-resolution land use data and damage costs based on generic European cost curves. Two flood models are used for the assessment using the detailed damage cost model based on a dynamic and a static flood approach, respectively. For the coarser model, only a static flood model is used. Significant differences are identified between the modelling approaches: The flood area varies up to a factor of ten for static floods due to the digital elevation map (DEM) model alone and a factor of 17 when changing both the DEM and using a dynamic flood. Corresponding factors for resulting damage costs are four and five, respectively.

Background. Rodents are among the most notorious invasive alien species worldwide. These invaders have substantially impacted native ecosystems, food production and storage, local infrastructures, human health and well-being. However, the lack of standardized and understandable estimation of their impacts is a serious barrier to raising societal awareness, and hampers effective management interventions at relevant scales. Methods. Here, we assessed the economic costs of invasive alien rodents globally in order to help overcome these obstacles. For this purpose, we combined and analysed economic cost data from the InvaCost database—the most up-to-date and comprehensive synthesis of reported invasion costs—and specific complementary searches within and beyond the published literature. Results. Our conservative analysis showed that reported costs of rodent invasions reached a conservative total of US$ 3.6 billion between 1930 and 2022 (annually US$ 87.5 million between 1980 and 2022), and were significantly increasing through time. The highest cost reported was for muskrat Ondatra zibethicus (US$ 377.5 million), then unspecified Rattus spp. (US$ 327.8 million), followed by Rattus norvegicus specifically (US$ 156.6 million) and Castor canadensis (US$ 150.4 million). Of the total costs, 87% were damage-related, principally impacting agriculture and predominantly reported in Asia (60%), Europe (19%) and North America (9%). Our study evidenced obvious cost underreporting with only 99 documents gathered globally, clear taxonomic gaps, reliability issues for cost assessment, and skewed breakdowns of costs among regions, sectors and contexts. As a consequence, these reported costs represent only a very small fraction of the expected true cost of rodent invasions (e.g., using a less conservative analytic approach would have led to a global amount more than 80-times higher than estimated here). Conclusions. These findings strongly suggest that available information represents a substantial underestimation of the global costs incurred. We offer recommendationsfor improving estimates of costs to fill these knowledge gaps including: systematic distinction between native and invasive rodents’ impacts; monetizing indirect impacts on human health; and greater integrative and concerted research effort between scientists and stakeholders. Finally, we discuss why and how this approach will stimulate and provide support for proactive and sustainable management strategies in the context of alien rodent invasions, for which biosecurity measures should be amplified globally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Rodents are among the most notorious invasive alien species worldwide. These invaders have substantially impacted native ecosystems, food production and storage, local infrastructures, human health and well-being. However, the lack of standardized and understandable estimation of their impacts is a serious barrier to raising societal awareness, and hampers effective management interventions at relevant scales. Methods Here, we assessed the economic costs of invasive alien rodents globally in order to help overcome these obstacles. For this purpose, we combined and analysed economic cost data from the InvaCost database—the most up-to-date and comprehensive synthesis of reported invasion costs—and specific complementary searches within and beyond the published literature. Results Our conservative analysis showed that reported costs of rodent invasions reached a conservative total of US$ 3.6 billion between 1930 and 2022 (annually US$ 87.5 million between 1980 and 2022), and were significantly increasing through time. The highest cost reported was for muskrat Ondatra zibethicus (US$ 377.5 million), then unspecified Rattus spp. (US$ 327.8 million), followed by Rattus norvegicus specifically (US$ 156.6 million) and Castor canadensis (US$ 150.4 million). Of the total costs, 87% were damage-related, principally impacting agriculture and predominantly reported in Asia (60%), Europe (19%) and North America (9%). Our study evidenced obvious cost underreporting with only 99 documents gathered globally, clear taxonomic gaps, reliability issues for cost assessment, and skewed breakdowns of costs among regions, sectors and contexts. As a consequence, these reported costs represent only a very small fraction of the expected true cost of rodent invasions (e.g., using a less conservative analytic approach would have led to a global amount more than 80-times higher than estimated here). Conclusions These findings strongly suggest that available information represents a substantial underestimation of the global costs incurred. We offer recommendations for improving estimates of costs to fill these knowledge gaps including: systematic distinction between native and invasive rodents’ impacts; monetizing indirect impacts on human health; and greater integrative and concerted research effort between scientists and stakeholders. Finally, we discuss why and how this approach will stimulate and provide support for proactive and sustainable management strategies in the context of alien rodent invasions, for which biosecurity measures should be amplified globally.

Evaluating sustainability stewardship at higher educational institutions is essential to working towards improving our environment. Many institutions have used environmental footprint indicators as a way to evaluate, track, and improve their impact on the environment. In this article, we present the web-based Integrated Environmental Footprint Tool (IEFT), which allows users to test how changes in certain activities impact nitrogen (N), greenhouse gases (GHG), phosphorus (P), and water (W) footprints for a university campus. This study uses the University of Virginia (UVA) as a model to show the impacts of their existing sustainability plans on multiple footprint indicators. Strategies from the University of Virginia's (UVA) two exisiting action plans, the GHG Action Plan and the N Action Plan, are evaluated to determine their impact on each of the footprints (GHG, N, P, and W). Based on the 2025 goal year, the strategies in these action plans are estimated to reduce the GHG, N, P, and W footprints by −38%, 32%, 25%, and 2.7% respectively. The damage costs associated with GHG and N footprints are assessed and reveal a 38 percent reduction in damage costs for GHG and a 42 percent reduction in costs for N. Using the IEFT to evaluate the impact of these action plan strategies, UVA optimized environmental outcomes. The model shown here can be used at other institutions to evaluate the environmental impact of planned changes to an institutions' operations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dust storms are natural hazards that cause economic and social damage in the Sistan region. Because the investigation of the impacts of dust storms in all aspects is difficult, in this study a part of the impacts of dust storms was assessed and assessment was limited to extent of damage to roads for the period 2017-2019. The damages cost of dust storms on roads includes damages to the road surface asphalt, signposts, and road maintenance. For estimation of damage cost and obtaining the required information, a series of tables were provided and completed by Road Maintenance and Transportation organizations of Zabol, Zahak, and Hirman. Analyzing dust storms was carried out through recorded wind speed and visibility data at Zabol meteorological station. The results showed that dust storms impacted the signposts and damaged the road surface for which their maintenance and repairmen cost increased. A good agreement was found between the monthly and annual frequency of dust storms and accumulated sediment. The greatest amount of accumulated sediment on the road was observed during the first half of the year, in June and 2018 according to the highest frequency of dust storms. The total damage cost of dust storms on road was obtained about 32.5 milliard Tomans for the period 2017-2019.

Abstract Automobile emissions are significantly dependent on the after‐treatment system performance, which is partly determined by exhaust temperature. Regarding diesel passenger cars, after‐treatment systems generally include diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC), diesel particulate filter (DPF), and selective catalytic reduction (SCR). The layouts affect their temperature variations because of the heat loss and thermal capacity of tailpipes and after‐treatment systems. As for the original layout of DOC+DPF+SCR, nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions are the main concerns of diesel vehicle emissions, especially under cold‐start conditions. Ammonia Creation and Conversion Technology (ACCT) system shows excellent performance of reducing cold‐start NOx emissions; additionally, the damage costs of individual exhaust emissions are different greatly, which may change the priority of emission reductions when considering monetary penalty. In this article, the impacts of the after‐treatment system layouts on the exhaust emission reductions were investigated based on a diesel passenger car; additionally, SCR and ACCT systems as the De‐NOx devices were adopted individually in corresponding scenarios; the after‐treatment system layouts were assessed from the viewpoints of both emission factors and monetary penalty. The results indicated that the ACCT system presented much better NOx reduction effectiveness than SCR system over different layouts. NOx reduction efficiency was very sensitive to vehicle operation conditions over the upstream layouts of NOx reduction devices. The layout‐1 of DOC+ACCT+DPF showed the lowest global emission factors from the diesel passenger car. DPF was much easier to achieve regeneration under the original layout conditions due to its shortest distance to the engine. The layout‐2 of ACCT+DOC+DPF had the minimum monetary penalty factor of exhaust emissions from this diesel passenger car.

The dramatic tropical cyclone (TC) damages in coastal areas around the world have gained significant attention from asset owners, policy makers and engineers. The estimate of TC damage for a specific region of interest is informative of the preparedness and resilience of the area subjected to TC hazards, and thus should be conducted using a quantitative approach. A reasonable indicator of TC damage should incorporate not only the TC characteristics (e.g., intensity, frequency and duration) but also the vulnerability of the TC-prone areas. In this paper, a new indicator is proposed to measure the TC threat, which takes into account both the TC characteristics and the vulnerability of the area. The indicator has two forms: the first one considers the maximum wind speed only and the second incorporates the integrated wind speed profile. The historical damage scenarios along the US East Coast, as well as those in Hong Kong, China, are examined to demonstrate the applicability of the proposed indicator. Results show that the proposed indicator is capable of representing the impact of TC wind field profile on the TC damage costs. The proposed indicator could be further used to project the future TC damages for areas subjected to TC hazards.

This paper investigates the total life-cycle cost of designed structures with different increasing seismic response coefficient from the aspects of the structural and social life-cycle damage costs combined with environmental impacts. The environmental impacts are converted to the equivalent costs as much as possible, to be integrated with other social and economic factors. The proposed framework is applied to reinforced concrete frames of 4, 8, and 12 stories. The results indicate that the importance of the environmental aspects regarding the significant contribution to the total life-cycle costs is even more than that of the social aspect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an optimal seismic design context, the seismic demand is characterized by hazard curves that can be obtained by simulation techniques, and the capacity of the structure is established by the designer following a predefined seismic code. The capacity of structures is generally characterized by the seismic design coefficient. Furthermore, the structure damage is evaluated based on certain well-defined damage indicators (e.g., displacement ductility). Thus based on the damage indicator, it is possible to estimate the cost of the associated losses. Furthermore, it is noted that the quantification of the damage costs associated with reinforced concrete (RC) structures with and without nonlinear viscous dampers under seismic loading is very scarce in the relevant literature. In this study, damage cost expressions, similar to those employed in the optimal seismic design criterion, were used to quantify and compare the damage cost on RC buildings with and without viscous dampers located in seismic-prone areas of Mexico. For the analysis, three RC buildings were designed according to Mexican seismic design regulations. The buildings under study were subjected to seismic actions characterized by actual seismic records, scaled according to simulated maximum ground motion accelerations. The damage to the structures caused by seismic action is calculated by means of a damage factor that is a function of displacement ductility demand. The cost of damage to the considered structures was estimated based on cost expressions that are a function of the damage factor. The analyses results indicate that the use of viscous dampers in concrete buildings subjected to seismic action can considerably reduce the associated damage costs with respect to buildings without such a damping system.

Automobile emissions are significantly dependent on the after‐treatment system performance, which is partly determined by exhaust temperature. Regarding diesel passenger cars, after‐treatment systems generally include diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC), diesel particulate filter (DPF), and selective catalytic reduction (SCR). The layouts affect their temperature variations because of the heat loss and thermal capacity of tailpipes and after‐treatment systems. As for the original layout of DOC+DPF+SCR, nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions are the main concerns of diesel vehicle emissions, especially under cold‐start conditions. Ammonia Creation and Conversion Technology (ACCT) system shows excellent performance of reducing cold‐start NOx emissions; additionally, the damage costs of individual exhaust emissions are different greatly, which may change the priority of emission reductions when considering monetary penalty. In this article, the impacts of the after‐treatment system layouts on the exhaust emission reductions were investigated based on a diesel passenger car; additionally, SCR and ACCT systems as the De‐NOx devices were adopted individually in corresponding scenarios; the after‐treatment system layouts were assessed from the viewpoints of both emission factors and monetary penalty. The results indicated that the ACCT system presented much better NOx reduction effectiveness than SCR system over different layouts. NOx reduction efficiency was very sensitive to vehicle operation conditions over the upstream layouts of NOx reduction devices. The layout‐1 of DOC+ACCT+DPF showed the lowest global emission factors from the diesel passenger car. DPF was much easier to achieve regeneration under the original layout conditions due to its shortest distance to the engine. The layout‐2 of ACCT+DOC+DPF had the minimum monetary penalty factor of exhaust emissions from this diesel passenger car. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wetland valuation is an important tool available to environmental managers and decision makers to justify the overal costs of wetland conservation and management activities. Currently, policymakers and planners do not have the right toolbox with easy access to assess the economic value of wetland ecosystems. It is obvious that quoting quantitative and monertary values in expressing the value of each resource will be an efficient and effective tool to justify the goals of sustainable development and environmental protection, and this is possible by having a clear guidance model. Economic valuation of ecosystem services is a useful tool to support ecosystem management decisions and help decision makers to protect the ecosystem more effectively. Estimating the economic value and costs of environmental damage to wetland ecosystems can be effective in preserving values and preventing their degradation. The aim of this study is to integrate the economic valuation ​​and costs of environmental damage to the Iranian wetlands ecosystem services as part of the process of determining the economic value of natural resources. Existence of basic and practical model and guidance for wetland valuation can help interested users in identifying values, choosing valuation techniques appropriate to each value, and in general, guiding in the correct way of valuing goods and services and also in applying management and executive policies in line with the goals of sustainable development. The main purpose of this study is to show, using a conceptual framework, how to estimate the environmental values and costs of wetland ecosystem services. In this study, by reviewing selected articles and instructions related to the research topic, step-by-step steps for estimating the economic values ​​and costs of environmental damage to the Iranian wetlands ecosystem services are presented.

• A techno-economic approach is deployed to capture the complexity of Arctic voyages. • Under stricter policy scenarios, operations are still viable for Handymax tankers. • Under the above scenario a green ammonia/fuel cell combination is selected. • Implicit damage costs must be accounted for to aid in effective policy design. The purpose of this article is to provide a case for advancing methods in Arctic shipping towards a more complete approach. A methods assessment was used to identify core concepts in Arctic shipping and to develop a modelling approach that integrates together policy, alternative fuels, emissions and microeconomic theory - enabling the exploration of financial and implicit damage costs, opportunities and environmental risks within Arctic shipping. The integration of these paradigms can lead to more detailed insights into the economic feasibility of Arctic routes under different policy scenarios. The results indicate that by 2035 under both a business as usual and an Arctic zero emission ECA policy scenario, combined Arctic-Suez transits becomes financially viable for a Handymax wet bulker with a moderate ice class. By 2050 the transpolar route becomes accessible for 5 months for these vessels. The results also show that implicit damage costs cannot be overlooked and that it is possible to advance towards more holistic methods for assessing economic and environmental risks and opportunities in Arctic shipping. Through the incorporation of these factors, this framework can be used to assist policymakers with maximising societal welfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Invasive alien species (IAS) affect natural ecosystems and services fundamental to human well-being, human health and economies. However, the economic costs associated with IAS have been less studied than other impacts. This information can be particularly important for developing countries such as Argentina, where monetary resources for invasion management are scarce and economic costs are more impactful. The present study provides the first analysis of the economic cost of IAS in Argentina at the national level, using the InvaCost database (expanded with new data sources in Spanish), the first global compilation of the reported economic costs of invasions. We analyzed the temporal development of invasions costs, distinguishing costs according to the method reliability (i.e. reproducibility of the estimation methodology) and describing the economic costs of invasions by invaded environment, cost type, activity sector affected and taxonomic group of IAS. The total economic cost of IAS in Argentina between 1995 and 2019 was estimated at US$ 6,908 million. All costs were incurred and 93% were highly reliable. The recorded costs were mainly related to terrestrial environments and the agricultural sector, with lack of costs in other sectors, making it difficult to discuss the actual distribution of invasion costs in Argentina. Nevertheless, the reported costs of IAS in this country are very high and yet likely much underestimated due to important data gaps and biases in the literature. Considering that Argentina has an underdeveloped economy, costs associated with biological invasions should be taken into consideration for preventing invasions, and to achieve a more effective use of available resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ever-increasing number of introduced species profoundly threatens global biodiversity. While the ecological and evolutionary consequences of invasive alien species are receiving increasing attention, their economic impacts have largely remained understudied, especially in France. Here, we aimed at providing a general overview of the monetary losses (damages caused by) and expenditures (management of) associated with invasive alien species in France. This country has a long history of alien species presence, partly due to its long-standing global trade activities, highly developed tourism, and presence of overseas territories in different regions of the globe, resulting in a conservative minimum of 2,750 introduced and invasive alien species. By synthesizing for the first time the monetary losses and expenditures incurred by invasive alien species in Metropolitan France and French overseas territories, we obtained 1,583 cost records for 98 invasive alien species. We found that they caused a conservative total amount ranging between US$ 1,280 million and 11,535 million in costs over the period 1993-2018. We extrapolated costs for species invading France, for which costs were reported in other countries but not in France, which yielded an additional cost ranging from US$ 151 to 3,030 millions. Damage costs were nearly eight times higher than management expenditure. Insects, and in particular the Asian tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus and the yellow fever mosquito Ae. aegypti, totalled very high economic costs, followed by non-graminoid terrestrial flowering and aquatic plants (Ambrosia artemisiifolia, Ludwigia sp. and Lagarosiphon major). Over 90% of alien species currently recorded in France had no costs reported in the literature, resulting in high biases in taxonomic, regional and activity sector coverages. To conclude, we report alarming costs and even more alarming knowledge gaps. Our results should raise awareness of the importance of biosecurity and biosurveillance in France, and beyond, as well as the crucial need for better reporting and documentation of cost data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change will hit Africa economically hard, not least Southeast Africa. Understanding the impact of extreme climatic events is important for both economic development and climate change policy. Global climatological summaries reveal high damage potential pathways for developed countries. Will countries in Africa, especially in the southeastern board of the continent, be vulnerable to loss-generating extreme climate events? This study examined for countries in the sub-region, their vulnerability and damage costs, the impact of climate change on tropical storm damage, as well as the differential impacts of storm damages. An approach using a combination of physical and economic reasoning, as well as results of previous studies, reveals that in Southeast Africa, the economic response to the key damage parameters of intensity, size and wind speed is significant for all the countries. Damages in Kenya and Tanzania are sensitive to wind speed. Both vulnerability and adaptation are important for Madagascar and Mozambique – two countries predicted to be persistently damaged by tropical storms. For Mauritius and South Africa, inflictions from extreme events are expected to be impactful, and would require resilient public and private infrastructure. Reducing the physical and socio-economic vulnerability to extreme events will require addressing the underlying socio-economic drivers, as well as developing critical public infrastructure.

Climate change will hit Africa economically hard, not least Southeast Africa. Understanding the impact of extreme climatic events is important for both economic development and climate change policy. Global climatological summaries reveal high damage potential pathways for developed countries. Will countries in Africa, especially in the southeastern board of the continent, be vulnerable to loss-generating extreme climate events? This study examined for countries in the sub-region, their vulnerability and damage costs, the impact of climate change on tropical storm damage, as well as the differential impacts of storm damages. An approach using a combination of physical and economic reasoning, as well as results of previous studies, reveals that in Southeast Africa, the economic response to the key damage parameters of intensity, size and wind speed is significant for all the countries. Damages in Kenya and Tanzania are sensitive to wind speed. Both vulnerability and adaptation are important for Madagascar and Mozambique – two countries predicted to be persistently damaged by tropical storms. For Mauritius and South Africa, inflictions from extreme events are expected to be impactful, and would require resilient public and private infrastructure. Reducing the physical and socio-economic vulnerability to extreme events will require addressing the underlying socio-economic drivers, as well as developing critical public infrastructure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the past, Kigali has frequently experienced heavy rain events. These have often led to flooding, which also affected businesses. In the face of climate change, such events can become more frequent and can threaten economic development. To determine if more action is needed to protect businesses from flooding, we assessed how many businesses have suffered damages from floods in certain years in a certain area of Kigali. We also gathered information on how businesses were affected, how they are preparing for flooding and what support they are seeking. We developed and piloted a survey, a standardised questionnaire for gathering information on the relevance of flooding for businesses. The survey was then conducted among 350 businesses in Kigali asking business owners about their experiences with flooding in recent years. Eighty-one per cent of businesses have been affected by floods in 2013 and 2014. The annual damage costs resemble 22% of the total net profit of the businesses in the area. The most common damages were damages to goods that were to be sold and damages to buildings. The extent of past flood damages warrants action on flood risk management, both by businesses and citizens, as well as by city officials. Suitable actions range from increasing awareness about suitable protection measures to upgrading the sewage system.

Global scale assessments of coastal flood damage and adaptation costs under 21st century sea-level rise are associated with a wide range of uncertainties, including those in future projections of socioeconomic development (shared socioeconomic pathways (SSP) scenarios), of greenhouse gas concentrations (RCP scenarios), and of sea-level rise at regional scale (RSLR), as well as structural uncertainties related to the modelling of extreme sea levels, data on exposed population and assets, and the costs of flood damages, etc. This raises the following questions: which sources of uncertainty need to be considered in such assessments and what is the relative importance of each source of uncertainty in the final results? Using the coastal flood module of the Dynamic Interactive Vulnerability Assessment modelling framework, we extensively explore the impact of scenario, data and model uncertainties in a global manner, i.e., by considering a large number (>2000) of simulation results. The influence of the uncertainties on the two risk metrics of expected annual damage (EAD), and adaptation costs (AC) related to coastal protection is assessed at global scale by combining variance-based sensitivity indices with a regression-based machine learning technique. On this basis, we show that the research priorities in terms of future data/knowledge acquisition to reduce uncertainty on EAD and AC differ depending on the considered time horizon. In the short term (before 2040), EAD uncertainty could be significantly decreased by 25 and 75% if the uncertainty of the translation of physical damage into costs and of the modelling of extreme sea levels could respectively be reduced. For AC, it is RSLR that primarily drives short-term uncertainty (with a contribution ~50%). In the longer term (>2050), uncertainty in EAD could be largely reduced by 75% if the SSP scenario could be unambiguously identified. For AC, it is the RCP selection that helps reducing uncertainty (up to 90% by the end of the century). Altogether, the uncertainty in future human activities (SSP and RCP) are the dominant source of the uncertainty in future coastal flood risk.

Purpose: The interpretation of differences between alternative systems in life cycle assessment (LCA) can be problematic when different impact categories point to different directions. Using shadow prices is one way to overcome this problem, as the results are expressed in a monetary value, making comparison easy for decision makers. However, for the International Reference Life Cycle Data System midpoint impact categories 'water depletion' and 'land use', the shadow prices were missing. In the current paper, these were derived from literature sources. Methods: Abatement-based shadow prices (Pa) were established from the costs of the abatement measures minus the additional benefits. The damage-based shadow price (Pd) was based on the economic damage per unit of impact. Damage to ecosystems or human health was not included, as monetary values were lacking. As a consequence, Pd is an underestimation. Pa prices for land use, based on soil organic carbon (SOC) depletion, were derived from the cost of abatement measures like adding organic matter to agricultural soil or changing tillage. The response of crop yield to SOC, for several countries and crops, was used for the Pd calculation. For water depletion, Pa was based on water saving measures and desalination techniques, and Pd was based on economic losses due to water unavailability. Results and discussion: The following shadow prices were found for SOC depletion: Pa of 0.10 € kg−1 SOC and Pd of 0.0286 € kg−1 SOC. For water depletion, Pa of 15.8 € m−3 eq. was based on replacing turf with less-water-consuming planting. The value of water for irrigation was the base for the Pd 5.17 € m−3 eq. Freshwater and SOC Pa values unexpectedly exceeded the Pd values. This originated partly from the methods used. Pd was established by averaging marginal costs, while Pa used the most expensive measure, and this may lead to Pa exceeding Pd. Furthermore, the damage-based Pd for SOC and water depletion was mainly based on crop yield, and other types of ecological or societal damage will exist. Including these damages that lacked reliable data will increase Pd. Conclusions: The shadow prices presented here are the first science-based global estimates. For LCA, the Pd values should preferably be used. The values are regarded as conservative estimates since only economic damage was included as other damages like ecological damage could not be monetised. The estimated shadow prices were derived for impacts where economic data is relatively scarce, and this limited the quality of the estimates. More extensive studies are needed to further improve the quality of the estimated prices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Sediment hazard mapping is a fundamental tool for disaster management and mitigation activities in Thailand. Several countries are at risk of suffering landslide damages, but few studies have focused on the quantitative estimate of damages at a large scale. Most studies have considered the effects of landslide and soil erosion events from the perspective of their economic drawbacks, and there is no consensus on the quantitative assessment of the positive economic impacts of these events. Therefore, this study aimed to support the future assessment of landslides and other soil erosion events on sediment resources from positive economic perspectives. The results showed that the expected annual landslide damage cost in Thailand is approximately 204,000 USD per square kilometer. The cost for dredging sediment in Thailand is 108 USD per square kilometer. However, the benefit of sediment to private sectors is cost more than an average of 2040 USD per square kilometer, and the benefit values increased to approximately 15,000 USD per square kilometer in areas upstream of dams. In addition, there is an average benefit of 16,627 USD per year to the public sectors in each subdistrict of Thailand. Highlights • To analyze landslide hazards and landslide damage costs based on remote sensing data and geographic information system (GIS) • To develop a technique that has the potential to estimate the spatial distribution of sediment yield in Thailand • To estimate costs and benefit of sediment in Thailand [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the past, Kigali has frequently experienced heavy rain events. These have often led to flooding, which also affected businesses. In the face of climate change, such events can become more frequent and can threaten economic development. To determine if more action is needed to protect businesses from flooding, we assessed how many businesses have suffered damages from floods in certain years in a certain area of Kigali. We also gathered information on how businesses were affected, how they are preparing for flooding and what support they are seeking. We developed and piloted a survey, a standardised questionnaire for gathering information on the relevance of flooding for businesses. The survey was then conducted among 350 businesses in Kigali asking business owners about their experiences with flooding in recent years. Eighty-one per cent of businesses have been affected by floods in 2013 and 2014. The annual damage costs resemble 22% of the total net profit of the businesses in the area. The most common damages were damages to goods that were to be sold and damages to buildings. The extent of past flood damages warrants action on flood risk management, both by businesses and citizens, as well as by city officials. Suitable actions range from increasing awareness about suitable protection measures to upgrading the sewage system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Region-specific meteorological data show that Upper Austria will mainly be affected by increasing temperatures (up to +2.7 °C in 2050) and decreasing precipitation (up to - 27 mm in 2050). Using an interdisciplinary framework, we derive climatic developments and quantify the resulting direct sectoral and macroeconomic impacts for Upper Austria. Based on a set of climate change indicators, sectoral damages are monetized for selected impact chains in forestry, health, agriculture, space heating and cooling, and winter tourism. These damage costs are used as input for ex-ante simulations to quantify the macroeconomic impacts in 2022–2050. The results show an annual decline in gross regional product, accompanied by an annual decline in employment. This study provides a basis for decision making in Upper Austria, as well as in regions with comparable geographical, economic or demographic structures, and highlights the importance of region-specific climate change adaptation strategies. [Display omitted] • Meteorological forecasts and sectoral damage costs are combined for Upper Austria. • Climate change is indicated via rising temperature and declining precipitation. • Sectoral financial losses may occur (e.g., forestry, health, agriculture, tourism). • Macroeconomic simulations show declines in gross regional product and employment. • The results underline the need to implement regional adaptation measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Sound decisions on control actions for established invasive alien species (IAS) require information on ecological as well as socio-economic impact of the species and of its management. Cost-benefit analysis provides part of this information, yet has received relatively little attention in the scientific literature on IAS. Methods We apply a bio-economic model in a cost-benefit analysis framework to greater Canada goose Branta canadensis, an IAS with documented social, economic and ecological impacts in Flanders (northern Belgium). We compared a business as usual (BAU) scenario which involved non-coordinated hunting and egg destruction with an enhanced scenario based on a continuation of these activities but supplemented with coordinated capture of moulting birds. To assess population growth under the BAU scenario we fitted a logistic growth model to the observed pre-moult capture population. Projected damage costs included water eutrophication and damage to cultivated grasslands and were calculated for all scenarios. Management costs of the moult captures were based on a representative average of the actual cost of planning and executing moult captures. Results Comparing the scenarios with different capture rates, different costs for eutrophication and various discount rates, showed avoided damage costs were in the range of 21.15 M€ to 45.82 M€ under the moult capture scenario. The lowest value for the avoided costs applied to the scenario where we lowered the capture rate by 10%. The highest value occurred in the scenario where we lowered the real discount rate from 4% to 2.5%. Discussion The reduction in damage costs always outweighed the additional management costs of moult captures. Therefore, additional coordinated moult captures could be applied to limit the negative economic impact of greater Canada goose at a regional scale. We further discuss the strengths and weaknesses of our approach and its potential application to other IAS.

Least developed countries are generally regarded as particularly sensitive to climate change due to among other vulnerable locations and low adaptation capabilities. In the present study, we address climate change hazards in least developed countries by presenting a methodological framework, which is suitable for the estimation damage costs as a function of risk aversion, equality, income distribution and climate scenario using state-of-the-art climate model projections. As a case study, the methodology is applied to study severe storms in Cambodia based on two future climate scenarios and data on historical damages from storm events, which are used as a proxy in performing a sensitivity analysis on all input parameters. For the assumptions and parameter ranges used here, the study shows a high sensitivity to the income distribution (reflected by discount rates) and risk aversion and smaller effects from equality measures and extreme wind climate scenario. We emphasize that the assumptions on risk aversion reflecting consumption smoothing possibilities of low-income households clearly depicts that climate risks can be particularly high as a consequence of poverty and therefore recommend that context-specific vulnerabilities and equity concerns in climate risk studies should be included when making assessments for least developed countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an estimation and analysis of ship exhaust emissions and their externalities in the popular cruise destinations of Dubrovnik (Croatia) and Kotor (Montenegro) along the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. To this extent, the recent record (2012–2014) of cruise ships calling at these ports is used to model and estimate the ship exhaust emission inventories and externalities within the associated bays and ports. The results indicate that cruise ship traffic produces continuously increasing air pollution in both ports over recent years. More importantly, however, the analysis of the ship operating characteristics reveals that for any given ship traffic involving specific vessels using marine fuel of a given quality, the presence of other factors (e.g. berth availability, berth accessibility etc) can also influence the ship emission levels. This is particularly evident in the case of the port of Kotor where berth space insufficiency dictates the need for ship anchorage thus leading to increased air pollution and costs of associated damage. The application and results of the aforementioned ship activity-based methodology to the ports of Dubrovnik and Kotor improves our understanding of ship emissions in cruise bays and ports, and contributes toward the implementation of port policies for the effective control of air quality in such environmentally sensitive locations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We derived spatially explicit erosion rates in kg of soil lost per kg of crop as a function of crop choice and management practice on a global scale. These so-called characterization factors (CFs) can be used in product life cycle assessment studies to determine the impact of crop cultivation on soil erosion. We used the biophysical crop model EPIC to determine yields and erosion rates for cassava, corn, rapeseed, soybean, sugarcane, sunflower, and wheat under subsistence, rainfed with fertilizer, and high input (irrigation and fertilizer) farming. Yields varied considerably and contributed to variation in CFs to the same extent as erosion rates. Variation in CFs was mainly attributable to geographic location. Crop type and management scenario still lead to variation in CFs of 2 orders of magnitude, and a factor of 6, respectively. Lowest CFs were predicted for sugarcane worldwide, while largest impacts were seen for rapeseed. Largest median CFs were predicted for subsistence farming, while smallest CFs were obtained for high input systems. Median estimated damage in 2014 erosion costs ranged from 0.5 $/t sugarcane to 526 $/t rapeseed. Farmers can minimize erosion by carefully selecting management strategies, while purchasers can carefully select source locations to help reduce erosion related environmental damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Sound decisions on control actions for established invasive alien species (IAS) require information on ecological as well as socio-economic impact of the species and of its management. Cost-benefit analysis provides part of this information, yet has received relatively little attention in the scientific literature on IAS. Methods: We apply a bio-economic model in a cost-benefit analysis framework to greater Canada goose Branta canadensis, an IAS with documented social, economic and ecological impacts in Flanders (northern Belgium). We compared a business as usual (BAU) scenario which involved non-coordinated hunting and egg destruction with an enhanced scenario based on a continuation of these activities but supplemented with coordinated capture of moulting birds. To assess population growth under the BAU scenario we fitted a logistic growth model to the observed pre-moult capture population. Projected damage costs included water eutrophication and damage to cultivated grasslands and were calculated for all scenarios. Management costs of the moult captures were based on a representative average of the actual cost of planning and executing moult captures. Results: Comparing the scenarios with different capture rates, different costs for eutrophication and various discount rates, showed avoided damage costs were in the range of 21.15 M€ to 45.82 M€ under the moult capture scenario. The lowest value for the avoided costs applied to the scenario where we lowered the capture rate by 10%. The highest value occurred in the scenario where we lowered the real discount rate from 4% to 2.5%. Discussion. The reduction in damage costs always outweighed the additional management costs of moult captures. Therefore, additional coordinated moult captures could be applied to limit the negative economic impact of greater Canada goose at a regional scale. We further discuss the strengths and weaknesses of our approach and its potential application to other IAS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theoretical models of injurious animal contests, such as the cumulative assessment model (CAM), predict that an individual's decision to give up and retreat from a fight is determined by reaching a maximum cost threshold ( C max ). Under this model, an individual gives up when the accumulated costs of persisting exceed this threshold. CAM predicts that the velocity with which C max is reached depends on both the energetic (physiological) costs of remaining in the fight and the damage costs of injuries received. Here we propose that damage costs are accumulated not only by receiving injuries, but in some cases also by inflicting injury (attacking). We argue that these self-inflicted damage costs need to be incorporated into theoretical frameworks to fully understand what drives an individual to make the decision to give up, and we call for further research into this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Probability-based assessment of hurricane damage costs for coastal communities is vital for policy-makers and insurers. The uncertainties associated with hurricane damage costs include both the inherent uncertainty due to the random nature of hurricane process and the model uncertainty of the mathematical representation of hurricane damage (vulnerability model). The hurricane vulnerability model has traditionally been modeled as a deterministic function of hurricane wind speed in the literature, without considering the effect of vulnerability model uncertainty on hurricane damage assessment. This paper develops two methods to assess the hurricane damage costs in the presence of vulnerability model uncertainty. To account for the non-stationarity in hurricane actions due to the potential impact of climate change, the hurricane occurrence process is modeled as a non-stationary Poisson process and the hurricane intensity is assumed to vary in time with time-variant statistical parameters of hurricane wind speed. A case study of Miami-Dade County, Florida, is conducted to illustrate the proposed methods and to investigate the impact of vulnerability model uncertainty on hurricane damage costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dust storms are catastrophic natural disasters that beside other disasters frequency occur in the arid and semiaridregions worldwide. Drought occurrence, climate aridity, dryness of the Hamoun Lake cause strong winds to below.These conditions have been prepared for dust storms in Sistan region. The damages to Sistan society have beenmeasured using different criteria. The result shows that, peak of dust storms takes place at 10:30 am and the particularminimum was recorded at 6:30 pm. The maximal frequency of dust storms has been occurred in June and July. Sincethe dust storms cause extensive damages, an attempt has been made to quantify the damage costs using an analyticaldescriptivemethod based on questionnaires completed by the local community and organizations. The cumulativelosses in terms of physical damage and loss of productive man-hours have been estimated US$ 99.190 million, over afive year period between 2000-2005.

Excessive loss of fine-grained sediment to rivers is widely recognised as a global environmental problem. To address this issue, policy teams and catchment managers require an estimate of the ‘gap’ requiring remediation, as represented by the excess above ‘background’ losses. Accordingly, recent work has estimated the exceedance of modern ‘background’ sediment delivery to rivers at national scale across England and Wales due to (i) current agricultural land cover, cropping and stocking, and (ii) current land use corrected for the uptake of on-farm mitigation measures. This sectoral focus recognises that, nationally, agriculture has been identified as the principal source of fine sediment loss to the aquatic environment. Two estimates of modern ‘background’ sediment loss, based on paleolimnological evidence, were used in the analysis; the target modern ‘background’ (TMBSDR) and maximum modern ‘background’ (MMBSDR) sediment delivery to rivers. For individual (n = 4485) non-coastal water bodies, the sediment ‘gap’ in excess of TMBSDR and MMBSDR, due to current land cover, cropping and stocking, was estimated to range up to 1368 kg ha −1 yr −1 (median 61 kg ha −1 yr −1 ) and 1321 kg ha −1 yr −1 (median 19 kg ha −1 yr −1 ), respectively. The respective ranges in conjunction with current land cover, cropping and stocking but corrected for the potential impact of on-farm sediment mitigation measures were up to 1315 kg ha −1 yr −1 (median 50 kg ha −1 yr −1 ) and 1269 kg ha −1 yr −1 (median 8 kg ha −1 yr −1 ). Multiplication of the estimates of excess sediment loss corrected for current measure uptake, above TMBSDR and MMBSDR, with estimated maximum unit damage costs for the detrimental impacts of sediment pollution on ecosystem goods and services, suggested respective water body ranges up to 495 £ ha −1 yr −1 and 478 £ ha −1 yr −1 . Nationally, the total loss of sediment in excess of TMBSDR was estimated at 1,389,818 t yr −1 equating to maximum environmental damage costs of £523 M yr −1 , due to current structural land use, compared to 1,225,440 t yr −1 equating to maximum damage costs of £462 M yr −1 due the uptake of on-farm sediment control measures. The corresponding total loss of sediment in excess of MMBSDR was estimated at 1,038,764 t yr −1 equating to maximum damage costs of £462 M yr −1 , compared with 890,146 t yr −1 and £335 M yr −1 correcting excess agricultural sediment loss for current implementation of abatement measures supported by policy instruments. This work suggests that the current uptake of sediment control measures on farms across England and Wales is delivering limited benefits in terms of reducing loadings to rivers and associated environmental damage costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Life-cycle analysis of staple food (rice, flour and corn-based fodder) production and assessments of the associated greenhouse gas (GHG) and reactive nitrogen (Nr) releases, from environmental and economic perspectives, help to develop effective mitigation options. However, such evaluations have rarely been executed in China. We evaluated the GHG and Nr releases per kilogram of staple food production (carbon and Nr footprints) and per unit of net economic benefit (CO 2-NEB and Nr -NEB ), and explored their mitigation potential. Carbon footprints of food production in China were obviously higher than those in some developed countries. There was a high spatial variation in the footprints, primarily attributable to differences in synthetic N use (or CH 4 emissions) per unit of food production. Provincial carbon footprints had a significant linear relationship with Nr footprints, attributed to large contribution of N fertilizer use to both GHG and Nr releases. Synthetic N fertilizer applications and CH 4 emissions dominated the carbon footprints, while NH 3 volatilization and N leaching were the main contributors to the Nr footprints. About 564 (95% uncertainty range: 404–701) Tg CO 2 eq GHG and 10 (7.4–12.4) Tg Nr-N were released every year during 2001–2010 from staple food production. This caused the total damage costs of 325 (70–555) billion ¥, equivalent to nearly 1.44% of the Gross Domestic Product of China. Moreover, the combined damage costs and economic input costs, accounted for 66%-80% of the gross economic benefit generated from food production. A reduction of 92.7 Tg CO 2 eq yr −1 and 2.2 Tg Nr-N yr −1 could be achieved by reducing synthetic N inputs by 20%, increasing grain yields by 5% and implementing off-season application of straw and mid-season drainage practices for rice cultivation. In order to realize these scenarios, an ecological compensation scheme should be established to incentivize farmers to gradually adopt knowledge-based managements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Landslide impacts on infrastructure and society in the Federal Republic of Germany are associated with damage costs of about US$300 million on annual average. Despite the large overall losses due to widespread landslide activity, there is a lack of historical impact assessments, not just for Germany's low mountain areas but those of entire Central Europe as well. This paper is a collection of three case studies from Germany that seek a better understanding of landslide impacts and their economic relevance at local and regional level. The first case study investigates damage types and mitigation measures at a representative landslide site in ways that support to gain insight into historical hazard interactions with land use practices. This case history is followed by a case study dealing with fiscal cost impacts of landslide damages for an example city and the highway system of the Lower Saxon Uplands, NW Germany. In addition to a cost-burden analysis for affected public budgets, an overview of the principles of disaster financing in landslide practice is given. The third case study is focused on the conflicts of urban development in hazard areas, with an economic approach to balancing safety and public welfare interests. Each case study is based on historical data sets extracted from Germany's national landslide database. This paper presents three different case studies that in combination are a first step towards assessing landslide impacts in integrated perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The abatement of ammonia (NH 3 ) and particulate matter (PM) emissions in agriculture reduces damages to human health and biodiversity and provides benefits for society, but also imposes costs on farmers. As NH 3 and PM emissions partly originate from the same activities as greenhouse gases, interactions may exist between NH 3 and PM emission abatement and greenhouse gas emissions. This study is aimed at estimating the costs and benefits of NH 3 and PM emission abatement measures, considering interactions with agricultural greenhouse gas emissions in Germany. We combined an economic-ecological farm model for estimating emission reductions and abatement costs with an integrated environmental impact assessment model for estimating the benefits for human health and biodiversity, with applications to three Federal States in Germany. We reasoned that benefits exceed costs and that synergies with greenhouse gas reduction exist. All NH 3 and PM emission abatement measures affected greenhouse gases. In crop production, conservation tillage increased farmers' gross margins and reduced both PM emissions and, via soil carbon sequestration, also greenhouse gas emissions. The benefits depended on the soil type and its carbon sequestration potential, which differ across regions. The substitution of urea fertiliser for calcium ammonium nitrate reduced both NH 3 and greenhouse gas emissions. In livestock production, the measures with the highest net benefits were chemical washers for exhaust-air purification, injection or cultivator manure application and concrete manure storage cover. Low-protein pig feeding increased farmers' gross margins and also achieved high net benefits, with the benefits of greenhouse gas emission reduction exceeding those of NH 3 emission reduction. Low-protein poultry feeding and biofilters for air purification yielded negative net benefits and were therefore not recommended for implementation. The results confirm interactions of NH 3 and PM emission abatement measures with greenhouse gas emissions and suggest that all relevant emission types be integrated in an analysis. Air pollution abatement and climate change mitigation have mainly been addressed in separate policies. Our results suggest that these policies are better integrated so as to stimulate synergies and to define the appropriate ambition level of emission reduction targets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The disease Huanglongbing (HLB) was first discovered in the United States in Florida in 2005. Since its discovery, HLB has not only decreased citrus production, but has drastically increased production costs. With California contributing over 80% of the nation's fresh oranges, it is important to attempt to keep HLB from becoming endemic in this state. This study examines two alternative management practices and estimates the potential total loss in production value over a 20-year period due to HLB in the California citrus industry. The total loss is estimated to be $2.7 billion under a do-nothing approach and $2.2 billion under an aggressive mitigation approach. This suggests that limiting the spread of HLB is the preferred management approach. It not only results in total damage savings of $2,803 per acre over the do-nothing approach, but also protects the California citrus industry from HLB and promotes economic growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leakage of reactive nitrogen (N) from human activities to the environment can cause human health and ecological problems. Often these harmful effects are not reflected in the costs of food, fuel, and fiber that derive from N use. Spatial analyses of damage costs attributable to source at management-relevant scales could inform decisions in areas where anthropogenic N leakage causes harm. We used recently compiled data describing N inputs in the conterminous United States (US) to assess potential damage costs associated with anthropogenic N. We estimated fates of N leaked to the environment (air/deposition, surface freshwater, groundwater, and coastal zones) in the early 2000s by multiplying watershed-level N inputs (8-digit US Geologic Survey Hydrologic Unit Codes; HUC8s) with published coefficients describing nutrient uptake efficiency, leaching losses, and gaseous emissions. We scaled these N leakage estimates with mitigation, remediation, direct damage, and substitution costs associated with human health, agriculture, ecosystems, and climate (per kg of N) to calculate annual damage cost (US dollars in 2008 or as reported) of anthropogenic N per HUC8. Estimates of N leakage by HUC8 ranged from

Abstract: Health impacts from pesticide use are of continuous concern in the European population, requiring a constant evaluation of European pesticide policy. However, health impacts have never been quantified accounting for specific crops contributing differently to overall human exposure as well as accounting for individual substances showing distinct environmental behavior and toxicity. We quantify health impacts and related damage costs from exposure to 133 pesticides applied in 24 European countries in 2003 adding up to almost 50% of the total pesticide mass applied in that year. Only 13 substances applied to 3 crop classes (grapes/vines, fruit trees, vegetables) contribute to 90% of the overall health impacts of about 2000 disability-adjusted life years in Europe per year corresponding to annual damage costs of 78millionEuro. Considering uncertainties along the full impact pathway mainly attributable to non-cancer dose–response relationships and residues in treated crops, we obtain an average burden of lifetime lost per person of 2.6hours (95% confidence interval between 22seconds and 45.3days) or costs per person over lifetime of 12Euro (95% confidence interval between 0.03Euro and 5142Euro), respectively. 33 of the 133 assessed substances accounting for 20% of health impacts in 2003 are now banned from the European market according to current legislation. The main limitation in assessing human health impacts from pesticides is related to the lack of systematic application data for all used substances. Since health impacts can be substantially influenced by the choice of pesticides, the need for more information about substance application becomes evident. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Dust storms are catastrophic natural disasters that beside other disasters frequency occur in the arid and semiarid regions worldwide. Drought occurrence, climate aridity, dryness of the Hamoun Lake cause strong winds to below. These conditions have been prepared for dust storms in Sistan region. The damages to Sistan society have been measured using different criteria. The result shows that, peak of dust storms takes place at 10:30 am and the particular minimum was recorded at 6:30 pm. The maximal frequency of dust storms has been occurred in June and July. Since the dust storms cause extensive damages, an attempt has been made to quantify the damage costs using an analyticaldescriptive method based on questionnaires completed by the local community and organizations. The cumulative losses in terms of physical damage and loss of productive man-hours have been estimated US$ 99.190 million, over a five year period between 2000-2005. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This study aims at presenting a combined air quality and GIS modelling methodological approach in order to estimate crop damages from photochemical air pollution, depict their spatial resolution and assess the order of magnitude regarding the corresponding economic damages. The analysis is conducted within the Greater Thessaloniki Area, Greece, a Mediterranean territory which is characterised by high levels of photochemical air pollution and considerable agricultural activity. Ozone concentration fields for 2002 and for specific emission reduction scenarios for the year 2010 were estimated with the Ozone Fine Structure model in the area under consideration. Total economic damage to crops turns out to be significant and estimated to be approximately 43 M€ for the reference year. Production of cotton presents the highest economic loss, which is over 16 M€, followed by table tomato (9 M€), rice (4.2 M€), wheat (4 M€) and oilseed rape (2.8 M€) cultivations. Losses are not spread uniformly among farmers and the major losses occur in areas with valuable ozone-sensitive crops. The results are very useful for highlighting the magnitude of the total economic impacts of photochemical air pollution to the area’s agricultural sector and can potentially be used for comparison with studies worldwide. Furthermore, spatial analysis of the economic damage could be of importance for governmental authorities and decision makers since it provides an indicative insight, especially if the economic instruments such as financial incentives or state subsidies to farmers are considered. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The Western Corn Rootworm (WCR or Dvv., Diabrotica virgifera virgifera Le Conte) was first detected in Europe in the early nineties in Serbia. Since then the beetle has spread to more than 15 European countries. We assess the potential damage costs of the invasive species Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte (Dvv.) in Europe under a ‘no control’ scenario. While previous studies considered benefits and costs at country level, this study explicitly investigates the external benefits of control in one country for other countries. The assessment considers the spatial and temporal aspects of invasion considering a number of scenarios developed together with experts. The results indicate enormous economic benefits can be gained by controlling further spread of Dvv. The economic benefits of control range between 143 million Euro in the best case and 1739 million Euro in the worst case scenario. The most likely scenario results in average annual economic benefits of 472 million Euro. Even in countries that do not face high damage costs control can be justified as this will reduce the speed of spread of the WCR and generate a positive externality for other regions with higher damage costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]