Search

Recent controversies over the mismanagement of body donors in US medical schools have raised public concerns over the ethical treatment of bodies in "anatomical gift" programs. Despite widespread moral outrage at such cases, medical students may still make seemingly inconsequential mistakes or jokes that in fact constitute acts of disrespect. This may partially be attributed to the process of desensitization in working with human remains, and indicates a further need to inculcate into medical students the ethical responsibilities of working with body donors. Donation agreement statements that lack specific information about the respectful treatment of bodies in the anatomy laboratory may serve as an additional point of concern for potential donors seeking reassurance about the future treatment of their bodies. This viewpoint draws from the anecdotal experiences of medical students to portray two scenarios of medical students' disrespectful conduct toward body donors, and constructs an account of moral respect for human remains based on respect for posthumous autonomy and respect in attitude. It then provides suggestions for US medical schools to incorporate this ethical framework into their anatomy curricula to instill respectful dispositions in its students and facilitate a more robust informed consent process for potential donors who entrust their bodies to medical students.

The aim of this pilot study was to assess the efficacy of a desensitization program developed by dentists and occupational therapists, targeted at autistic adults, to encourage their cooperation in the dental setting. The study group consisted of 18 individuals with autism (10 men and 8 women, aged 18 - 45 years). The patients underwent a baseline examination, after which they were progressively exposed to oral examination maneuvers and ultimately dental procedures. To this end, the participants engaged in a weekly desensitization session performed by an occupational therapist and a monthly assessment session by a dentist applying the Frankl scale, for a maximum period of 30 weeks. During the first session, 44% of the participants completed all oral examination procedures, reaching 94% by the fourth visit and 100% by the seventh visit. None of the participants completed a simple dental treatment up to the third session, subsequently increasing the percentage progressively until reaching a maximum of 61% in the seventh visit. In conclusion, a dental desensitization program implemented by dentists and occupational therapists could help in performing oral examinations and simple therapeutic procedures for a considerable percentage of adults with autism, without having to resort to pharmacological behavioral control techniques.

Background: Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing therapy (EMDR) is a NICE recommended treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder within the general population. Ongoing research is now investigating the use of EMDR for individuals with intellectual disability. Alongside quantitative research efforts, it is beneficial to explore the qualitative experience of clinicians adopting EMDR in their practice. The current study interviewed newly trained EMDR therapists working in intellectual disability services. Method: Participants (six Clinical Psychologists from an NHS learning disability service) had recently undertaken EMDR training as part of a wider randomised control trial (Trauma-AID). Interviews were qualitatively analysed using thematic analysis. Results: Three themes emerged; "learning EMDR, conducting EMDR and external factors," with respect to clinicians' experiences. Conclusions: Further research is needed to provide guidance and reassurance for clinicians currently using or hoping to use this therapy with people with intellectual disabilities.

Background: Exposure therapy ("exposure") for youth anxiety is highly underutilized in clinical practice. Asynchronous, online implementation strategies such as online toolkits hold promise as pragmatic approaches for extending the sustainability of evidence-based interventions, but their long-term usage, perceived utility, and impact are rarely studied. Objective: This study presents three-year preliminary implementation outcomes for a free, online toolkit to support exposure therapy use with youth: the Resource for Exposure for Anxiety Disordered Youth (READY; www.bravepracticeforkids.com). Implementation outcomes of interest included READY usage statistics, adoption, perceived utility, and clinician exposure use. Methods: Web analytics characterized usage patterns. A survey of READY users (N = 49; M age = 34.2, 82.9% female, 71% White) assessed adoption, perceived utility, clinician exposure use, and persistent barriers to exposure use. Results: In its first three years, READY had 13,543 page views across 1,731 unique users; 442 (25.6%) registered as a site user to access specialized content. Survey data suggested variability in usage and perceived utility across toolkit components. Qualitative analyses highlighted persistent exposure barriers that pointed to potential READY refinements. Conclusions: Overall, READY has been accessed by hundreds of clinicians, but its impact was limited by low return to the site. This study highlights strengths and limitations of standalone online implementation supports and identifies additional steps needed to optimally support clinicians to deliver exposure to youth in need.

Millions of college students across the United States experience anxiety disorders, evidencing a high need for evidence-based counseling techniques. At the same time, impairment resulting from anxiety often necessitates classroom accommodations at the postsecondary level. Cognitive-behavioral therapy with exposure (CBT ERP) involves a thorough assessment of the function of a client's behaviors and a personalized treatment plan that gradually exposes them to feared stimuli. Yet students often underutilize classroom accommodations, and accommodations may conflict with the theoretical underpinnings of CBT ERP. We present a brief and accessible explanation of CBT ERP, discuss common classroom accommodations, and suggest methods for successfully integrating accommodations into cognitive-behavioral interventions.

Autistic individuals are at greater risk of experiencing adverse and traumatic life events. Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing (EMDR), a psychological therapy, is potentially effective for treating the constellation of difficulties arising from traumatic experiences, as well as mental health conditions. Yet minimal research has focused on how EMDR may require adaptation to improve its accessibility, acceptability and effectiveness for autistic individuals. In a three-round Delphi survey, 103 EMDR therapists were asked about barriers to EMDR for autistic individuals and adaptations employed to enhance therapy, so as to generate consensus about important or essential components of adaptations to EMDR. Four types of barriers were highlighted: client-related characteristics, therapist-related characteristics, differences in the therapeutic relationship and systemic issues. One hundred and twenty-four adaptations were identified, including 35 general adaptations (i.e. relevant across EMDR phases), 81 relating to specific EMDR phases and 8 about EMDR clinical supervision. Of these, 27 adaptations were used often or always by at least 80% of participants; a further 61 were sometimes incorporated within therapy, depending on the client. Study findings highlight the need for EMDR therapists to have training about autism and the potential ways of tailoring EMDR, and that individual case conceptualisation is key.

Behaviour modification refers to the techniques used to try and decrease or increase a particular type of behaviour or reaction. This might sound very technical, but it is used very frequently by all of us. Parents use this to teach their children right from wrong. Therapists use it to promote healthy behaviours in their patients. The purpose behind behaviour modification is not to understand why or how a particular behaviour started. Instead, it only focuses on changing behaviour, and there are different methods used to accomplish it.

Noise hypersensitivity is a poorly understood symptom of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). For some, problem behaviors co-occur with the aversive noise. Limited literature exists on treating noise hypersensitivity; however, noise hypersensitivity may be related to a specific phobia. This case study utilizes modified Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) to address anxiety, avoidance, and problem behaviors evoked by noise in a teen with ASD and mild Intellectual Disability (ID). Using multi-method assessment and individualized treatment, problem behaviors reduced, and independent coping strategies use occurred. Successful desensitization supports the efficacy of modified CBT as a treatment for noise-related anxiety and problem behaviors in individuals with ASD and ID. Outcomes are discussed considering intervention difficulties for noise hypersensitivity in a complex and diverse population.

Introduction: Individuals with intellectual disability (ID) are at significant risk of developing emotional trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to altered neuropsychological functioning, increased chance of experiencing adverse life events, difficulty expressing emotions, diagnostic overshadowing and institutional failures. Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing Therapy (EMDR) is efficacious in the general population, but research lacks evidence to suggest EMDR remains effective in ID. This paper assesses the evidence available on the use of EMDR to treat PTSD in ID and provide direction for future research. Methods: A scoping review using PRISMA guidance was conducted. PsychInfo, Embase and Medline were completed using the NICE Health Databases Advanced Search in March 2020. Supplementary searches of Joanna Briggs and ongoing randomized controlled trials were also conducted. The terms used related to Intellectual disability and EMDR therapy. Searches were conducted without the use of PTSD or trauma-related terms to increase the number of identified articles. Inclusion criteria involved the use of EMDR therapy as the primary intervention using a population of individuals with ID. Only articles available in English were included. There were no exclusions related to the study design. All study designs and publication types were included in this review to capture the breadth of information that might be available on the topic. Articles identified were summarized, appraised and collated into tables. Papers were assessed for quality using the GRADE criteria. Results: Out of 16 identified publications, 13 demonstrated positive results and 3 less favorable. Heterogeneity among participants, variations in EMDR protocol/adaptations, and variation in trauma and PTSD assessment were prevalent. Conclusions: It is not possible to conclude whether EMDR is efficacious in people with ID. Future studies need to use homogenized populations, standardized EMDR protocol and validated trauma and PTSD assessments.

People with developmental disorders (DD) often display high levels of selective eating, which can result in micronutrient deficiencies. It is therefore essential to explore ways to increase dietary variety in this population. To identify different types of interventions promoting increased acceptance of new foods or dietary variety for DD populations and to determine their effectiveness. Thirty-six studies met criteria for inclusion in the review. Twenty-two types of intervention were identified with 34 studies being reported as effective and 33 of these incorporating components drawn from learning theory. Multi-component interventions centred on operant conditioning, systematic desensitisation and changes to environment and familial practices were reported as effective for individuals.

The primary purpose of this study is to share what has been found to work well in professional practice based on a series of exploratory scholarly studies as well as information gathered informally from students and through specialized aquatic workshops, conferences and seminars. Research has shown that there is an existing population of at-risk swimmers, and, therefore, it is inevitable that many aquatic professionals will encounter individuals in need of a specialized approach to learning. The concept of systematic desensitization holds great promise and, when refined, can be introduced to educators to augment existing swimming instruction and eventually contribute to the extinction of preventable drowning.

The study investigated whether EMDR is a feasible therapy for adults with ASD and a history of adverse events, and whether it is associated with reductions in symptoms of PTSD, psychological distress and autism. Participants received 6 to 8 weeks treatment as usual (TAU), followed by a maximum of 8 sessions EMDR added to TAU, and a follow-up of 6-8 weeks with TAU only. Results showed a significant reduction of symptoms of post-traumatic stress (IES-R: d = 1.16), psychological distress (BSI: d = 0.93) and autistic features (SRS-A: d = 0.39). Positive results were maintained at follow-up. The results suggest EMDR therapy to be a feasible and potentially effective treatment for individuals with ASD who suffer from the consequences of exposure to distressing events.

Although violent entertainment has existed for centuries, the media have made it more accessible than ever before. In modern societies, people are immersed in media, like fish in water. Using hand-held devices, people can consume media just about anywhere they want, anytime they want. Moreover, violence is a common theme in the media, and research has consistently shown that violent media can have harmful effects on consumers, such as making them more aggressive and more numb to the pain and suffering of others. Teaching students about the harmful effects of violent media is challenging because many students love to consume violent media, and believe they are somehow immune to any harmful effects. This article reviews the scientific evidence on violent media effects, discusses some reasons why people deny violent media effects, and offers suggestions for how to teach students about violent media effects.

Cognitive and behavioral interventions have been cautiously recommended as "best practice" in the treatment of pathological gambling. Behavioral interventions, using a range of techniques, have been the most commonly evaluated approach to the psychological treatment of pathological gambling. The recent literature evaluating behavioral treatments has shifted from aversive therapy to alternative behavioral techniques such as interventions based on desensitization and exposure procedures. A range of other behavioral techniques, such as alternative activity scheduling, problem solving training, financial planning and limit setting, social skills training, and relapse prevention, have been included as treatment components of standardized cognitive-behavioral programs. This paper reviews the published empirical literature investigating the efficacy of the behavioral intervention strategies of activity scheduling and desensitization in the treatment of pathological gambling. Although the findings for both intervention strategies are promising, they must be interpreted with caution given the methodological difficulties inherent in the pathological gambling treatment outcome literature. (Contains 2 tables.)

Virtual reality exposure has recently emerged as an important tool for exposure therapy in the treatment of fear of flying. There have been numerous empirical studies that have evaluated the effectiveness of virtual reality exposure as compared to other treatments including in vivo exposure, progressive muscle relaxation, cognitive therapy, bibliotherapy, and supportive group therapy. The results of two case studies and eight outcome trials have indicated that virtual reality exposure is comparable or superior to these treatments. However, the best results, as indicated by a reduction in self reported anxiety and fear experienced during an actual flight, were obtained when virtual reality exposure is combined with cognitive interventions. (Contains 1 table.)

Introduction: Medical students often describe the gross anatomy course as both stressful and a rite of passage. Research differs as to whether the stress it engenders is significant or transitory. This qualitative study of first year anatomy student reports on the use of optional creative projects to promote reflection and reduce stress. Methods: Over a three year period, 115 students, or 38.72% of all eligible students, opted to complete 1-2 arts or written creative projects during the anatomy course. Of these, 34 students gave us permission to analyze their projects, while 12 project completers and 12 project noncompleters were interviewed to determine their views about the projects. Researchers developed coding schema and interview schedules that were used to assess and interpret the data. Findings: On average, over a three year period, a little less than 40% of students selected the creative project option, with approximately equal numbers of male and female students represented. Comparing types of projects, art works were more celebratory and less reflective than written works. Comparing phases of projects, initial projects appeared more conflicted, while later projects showed more desensitization, appreciation, and satisfaction. Students expressed anxiety and ambivalence about anatomy and employed various defense mechanisms to resolve their feelings. Students completing projects reported that they both reduced stress and caused them to develop a richer appreciation for both anatomy and medicine as a whole, while noncompleters acknowledged that viewing the projects helped them to better understand their own experience of anatomy. Conclusions: For some students, creative projects may offer a more reflective and introspective way of wrestling with the ambivalent emotions anatomy raises than simple desensitization strategies of exposure.

We evaluated contact desensitization (reinforcing approach responses) as intervention for specific phobia with a child diagnosed with autism. During hospital-based intervention, the boy was able to encounter previously avoided stimuli. Parental report suggested that results were maintained postdischarge. (Contains 1 figure.)

Fear of dental procedures deters many individuals with mental retardation from accepting dental treatment. This study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of two procedures, in vivo desensitization and video modeling, for increasing compliance with dental procedures in participants with severe or profound mental retardation. Desensitization increased compliance for all 5 participants, whereas video modeling increased compliance for only 1 of 3 participants.

Background: This study explored the effectiveness of eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in persons with mild to borderline intellectual disability (MBID) using a multiple baseline across subjects design. Methods: One child and one adolescent with MBID, who met diagnostic criteria for PTSD according to a PTSD clinical interview (i.e., ADIS-C PTSD section), adapted and validated for this target group, were offered four sessions of EMDR. PTSD symptoms were measured before, during and after EMDR, and at six weeks follow-up. Results: For both participants, number of PTSD symptoms decreased in response to treatment and both no longer met PTSD criteria at post-treatment. This result was maintained at 6-week follow-up. Conclusions: The results of this study add further support to the notion that EMDR can be an effective treatment for PTSD in children and adolescents with MBID. Replication of this study in larger samples and using a randomized controlled design is warranted.

This study aimed to critically review all studies that have set out to evaluate the use of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) for people diagnosed with both intellectual disability (ID) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Searches of the online databases Psych Info, The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, The Cochrane Database of Randomized Control Trials, CINAHL, ASSIA and Medline were conducted. Five studies are described and evaluated. Key positive points include the high clinical salience of the studies and their high external validity. Several common methodological criticisms are highlighted, however, including difficulty in the definition of the terms ID and PTSD, lack of control in design and a lack of consideration of ethical implications. Overall, the articles reviewed indicate cause for cautious optimism about the utility of EMDR with this population. The clinical and research implications of this review are discussed.

This study examined the effectiveness of sensory desensitization training for 12 nonverbal children with autism to facilitate participation in an electrophysiological study assessing linguistic processing. Sensory desensitization was achieved for 10 of the 12 children and thus allowed collection of usable data in a passive linguistic paradigm. Application of such desensitization methods may be useful as a precursor to other assessment protocols for individuals who are difficult to test.

Objective: This study examined (a) duration of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) as a moderator of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) versus its components (cognitive therapy and self-control desensitization) and (b) increases in dynamic flexibility of anxious symptoms during the course of psychotherapy as a mediator of this moderation. Degree of dynamic flexibility in daily symptoms was quantified as the inverse of spectral power due to daily to intradaily oscillations in four-times-daily diary data (Fisher, Newman, & Molenaar, 2011). Method: This was a secondary analysis of the data of Borkovec, Newman, Pincus, and Lytle (2002). Seventy-six participants with a principle diagnosis of GAD were assigned randomly to combined CBT (n = 24), cognitive therapy (n = 25), or self-control desensitization (n = 27). Results: Duration of GAD moderated outcome such that those with longer duration showed greater reliable change from component treatments than they showed from CBT, whereas those with shorter duration fared better in response to CBT. Decreasing predictability in daily and intradaily oscillations of anxiety symptoms during therapy reflected less rigidity and more flexible responding. Increases in flexibility over the course of therapy fully mediated the moderating effect of GAD duration on condition, indicating a mediated moderation process. Conclusions: Individuals with longer duration of GAD may respond better to more focused treatments, whereas those with shorter duration of GAD may respond better to a treatment that offers more coping strategies. Importantly, the mechanism by which this moderation occurs appears to be the establishment of flexible responding during treatment. (Contains 2 tables, 3 figures and 1 footnote.)

This investigation examined the boundaries of inoculation theory by examining how inoculation can be applied to conspiracy theory propaganda as well as inoculation itself (called metainoculation). A 3-phase experiment with 312 participants compared 3 main groups: no-treatment control, inoculation, and metainoculation. Research questions explored how inoculation and metainoculation effects differ based on the argument structure of inoculation messages (fact- vs. logic-based). The attack message was a 40-minute chapter from the "9/11 Truth" conspiracy theory film, "Loose Change: Final Cut". The results indicated that both the inoculation treatments induced more resistance than the control message, with the fact-based treatment being the most effective. The results also revealed that metainoculation treatments reduced the efficacy of the inoculation treatments. (Contains 1 table and 1 note.)

Many studies have reported on the perceptions of medical students toward dissection. It is important to understand the feelings and symptoms experienced during dissection so that they can be adequately handled. Prior to dissection, first year students are given lectures on aspects of dissection, death and dying, and death rituals in various cultures. Two separate questionnaires, one given during the first week of dissection and another given one month into the program were then completed anonymously by dissection groups. The questions were designed to be open-ended, thereby encouraging group discussion amongst students. The questionnaires were used to determine the perception of students to dissection and to discover if these perceptions change during the dissection program. The first questionnaire revealed that students do experience fears and anxiety prior to and at the beginning of dissection; however, most of these fears dissipated by the time of the second questionnaire. One month into dissection students cited talking to peers as their main coping mechanism and fewer students mentioned emotional detachment from their cadaver as a coping mechanism, as was the case in the first questionnaire. Dissection was perceived as a positive experience by our student cohort and most students cited the main advantage of dissection as the ability to visualize organs in three dimensions. The comprehensive answers received from the students indicated that thorough discussion of feelings amongst peers occurred, introducing students to an important coping mechanism at an early stage of their learning. (Contains 2 figures and 1 table.)

Objective: To examine the efficacy and maintenance of developmentally adapted prolonged exposure therapy for adolescents (PE-A) compared with active control time-limited dynamic therapy (TLDP-A) for decreasing posttraumatic and depressive symptoms in adolescent victims of single-event traumas. Method: Thirty-eight adolescents (12 to 18 years old) were randomly assigned to receive PE-A or TLDP-A. Results: Both treatments resulted in decreased posttraumatic stress disorder and depression and increased functioning. PE-A exhibited a greater decrease of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression symptom severity and a greater increase in global functioning than did TDLP-A. After treatment, 68.4% of adolescents beginning treatment with PE-A and 36.8% of those beginning treatment with TLDP-A no longer met diagnostic criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder. Treatment gains were maintained at 6- and 17-month follow-ups. Conclusions: Brief individual therapy is effective in decreasing posttraumatic distress and behavioral trauma-focused components enhance efficacy. Clinical trial registry information: Prolonged Exposure Therapy Versus Active Psychotherapy in Treating Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Adolescents, NCT00183690. (Contains 1 figure and 2 tables.)

Increased processing time for threatening stimuli is a reliable finding in emotional Stroop tasks. This is particularly pronounced among individuals with anxiety disorders and reflects heightened attentional bias for perceived threat. In this repeated measures study, 35 healthy participants completed a randomized series of Stroop tasks involving colour-naming of neutral or threatening words concurrently accompanied by either silence or music. An emotional Stroop effect was evident under silent conditions. However, a significant interaction effect was detected indicating that in the music listening condition the expected interference was significantly diminished. The presence of music therefore may serve to relax the deployment of attentional mechanisms associated with the detection of threat. Putative modes of action are discussed with reference to effects of task-irrelevant stimuli on attentional distribution, effects of music on arousal and emotional state, and neural imaging studies of brain function. Potential clinical applications are briefly outlined. (Contains 1 figure and 1 table.)

Background: Charles Van Riper (1905-94) author, researcher and practitioner, was one of the major contributors to the field of stuttering in the 20th century. His series of Action Therapy videotapes provide a useful model of how therapy was implemented by a master clinician. Aims: Van Riper's session with a client is analysed to reveal how voices are used by these two participants during desensitization therapy, and to demonstrate how Van Riper's expertise manifests itself during the session. Methods & Procedures: Interaction between Van Riper and a client during the desensitization stage of therapy was transcribed, annotated, and analysed using Goffman's (1974) frame analysis. Elements in the extensive discourse (about 4800 words exchanged) were chosen to illustrate a range of distinctive voices used by Van Riper and the client during this "crucial" stage of therapy. Outcomes & Results: Van Riper shifts his voice throughout the session. His comments are sometimes directed to the viewing audience, at which times he tends to use the voice of an exegeter. When directing his comments to the client, he uses two voices: an authoritative one and one that aligns with the person's feelings. The voice of the client is often silenced, especially when Van Riper is being authoritative. Sometimes Van Riper uses his expertise by "speaking through" the voice of the client. This is especially true when summarizing what the client might be feeling. The true voice of the client emerges only occasionally. Detailed discourse analysis focusing on the roles played by participants as revealed through footings taken by speakers show complexity in the interaction that is not obvious at surface level. Conclusions: By using discourse analysis, the multiple voices that Van Riper uses to achieve the complex tasks involved in desensitization can be specified.

In this article, the authors present a multilevel (or hierarchical linear) model that illustrates issues in the application of the model to data from meta-analytic studies. In doing so, several issues are discussed that typically arise in the course of a meta-analysis. These include the presence of non-zero between-study variability, how multiple effect sizes per studies can be combined into a single analysis, and an examination of model misfit and robustness in an attempt to understand the effects of treatments on multiple outcomes. The authors' purpose is to explain the model and illustrate analytic strategies with a well-known data set. The results reported in this study are based on a set of 177 studies (containing 454 effect sizes) of systematic desensitization, behavior modification, and cognitive-behavioral (CB) comparisons from the original study by Smith, Glass, and Miller (1980). On the basis of this analysis of the Smith et al. data, it is concluded that interventions based on CB theory have been moderately effective in improving outcomes, whereas interventions based on behavior modification and systematic desensitization may have had negligible effects. A list of SAS Codes is appended. (Contains 3 figures and 4 tables.)

Exposure to an enriched environment (EE) has been shown to induce cortical plasticity. Considerable amount of research is focused on the effects of EE in the hippocampus; however, effects of EE on other brain regions and the mechanisms involved are not well known. To investigate this, we induced cortical plasticity by placing mice in an EE for one month and measured the effects of EE in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Here, we show that EE enhanced the expression of the plasticity gene, "egr-1," in the ACC of EE animals accompanied by enhanced cingulate long-term potentiation (LTP) and decreased cingulate long-term depression (LTD). The increased NMDA receptor NR2B/NR2A subunits current ratio is associated with the plasticity seen in the ACC while total protein levels remain unchanged. Furthermore, behavioral experiments show that these mice exposed to EE demonstrate enhanced responses to acute and long-term inflammation. Our findings suggest that exposure to EE alters physiological properties within the ACC which results in enhanced responses to inflammation.

The focus of this paper is on the potential problems and challenges presented by the content, quantity and quality of contemporary media influences (electronic, print and digital). Whereas most articles in this arena focus on one form of media influences (e.g., video games), this article looks at the cumulative scope of influence presented by today's media on the development of young people (ages 5-18). This article reviews previous research and provides resources and recommendations for educators and parents who are, all too often, unaware of the tremendous influence of the media on the development of knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and values. The contemporary social construction of reality via media influences is quickly overtaking the traditional family-school-peer-based construction of reality. The consequences of this media acculturation are discussed and recommendations and resources for teachers and parents provided. Media literacy resources are appended.

Research investigating public speaking anxiety treatments is subject to demand effects. This study tests the relative effectiveness of systematic desensitization (SD) and multiple treatment method (MT) containing visualization therapy against no-treatment and credible placebo controls. Data (N = 238) were collected at six points in a public speaking class. Reported anxiety decreased over time, but neither treatment outperformed the placebo control. Short-term gains were apparent for the MT group with participants selected on the basis of extreme high scores, but these gains did not persist relative to the control conditions over time. The current data suggest no evidence of lasting improvement of SD or MT treatments over a credible placebo control and enrollment in a standard public speaking class. (Contains 4 tables, 1 figure and 4 notes.)

This paper describes several treatment strategies that clinicians can use to address negative affective, behavioral, and cognitive reactions that school-age children who stutter may experience as part of their disorder. Specific strategies include desensitization to stuttering, cognitive restructuring, self-acceptance, purposeful self-disclosure, and a combination of both fluency enhancing and stuttering modification approaches. To facilitate clinicians' application of these techniques, the strategies are presented in the context of a case study involving a 9-year-old boy who participated in a comprehensive treatment program for stuttering. Following treatment, the child exhibited improved communication attitudes and a reduced frequency and severity of stuttering, combined with reduced concern about stuttering, as indicated through formal and informal assessments. Findings suggest that clinicians can help children overcome the negative reactions associated with stuttering through a number of treatment strategies that can be applied in a variety of clinical settings. Educational objectives: After reading this article, participants will be able to: (1) define desensitization and cognitive restructuring and provide two arguments in favor of using these strategies in treatment for school-age children who stutter; (2) describe two treatment strategies for helping school-age children achieve desensitization through stuttering therapy; (3) describe two treatment strategies for helping school-age children engage in cognitive restructuring in the context of therapy. (Contains 1 table.)

Repetitive, unilateral stimulation of "Aplysia" induces long-term sensitization (LTS) of ipsilaterally elicited siphon-withdrawal responses. Whereas some morphological effects of training appear only on ipsilateral sensory neurons, others appear bilaterally. We tested the possibility that contralateral morphological modifications may have functional significance. Therefore, we examined whether LTS training primes subsequent sensitization. Twenty-four hours after LTS training the effects of brief shock treatment (BST) were examined. BST failed to sensitize animals that had previously received either 4-d control treatment or 4-d ipsilateral LTS training. In contrast, BST did sensitize animals that had previously received 4-d contralateral LTS training, suggesting the presence of a latent trace that primes the animal for further learning.

Dishabituation has been thought to be due either to reversal of the process of habituation or to a second process equivalent to sensitization superimposed on habituation. One way to address this question is by testing whether dishabituation and sensitization can be dissociated. Previous studies using this approach in "Aplysia" have come to different conclusions about the nature of dishabituation, perhaps because those studies differed in many respects, including (1) whether they also observed transient behavioral inhibition, and (2) whether they used test stimuli that activated the LE siphon sensory neurons or as yet unidentified sensory neurons. To attempt to resolve the apparent contradictions between the previous studies, we have explored the importance of these two factors by performing a parametric study of dishabituation and sensitization of gill withdrawal in a simplified preparation that does not exhibit transient behavioral inhibition, using two different test stimuli that are known to activate the LE (Touch) or unidentified (Not Touch) sensory neurons. We find that dishabituation and sensitization in this preparation have similar time courses and generally similar functions of shock intensity. However, under one condition, with the Not Touch stimulus 2.5 min after the shock, dishabituation has a reverse effect of shock intensity. Additional analyses suggest that dishabituation with the Not Touch stimulus 2.5 min after the shock is due to reversal of habituation, whereas 12.5 min after the shock, dishabituation is due to superimposed sensitization. These results thus suggest that dishabituation may involve either process in the same preparation, and begin to define the conditions that favor one or the other. (Contains 4 figures.)

This article presents an example of two boys who have received a list of diagnoses including Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), autism, Asperger's syndrome, Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), and clinical depression. Both boys received a variety of interventions ranging from behavior modification plans to counseling and medication, but it was not until their behaviors were examined from a sensory integration perspective that a clear, consistent picture of each of them began to emerge. Sensory integration (SI) is neurobiological activity within our bodies, defined as the way the central nervous system processes information from the senses. Sensory integration is the brain and nervous system's ability to organize the sensory information that bombard a person's nervous systems. When sensations flow into the brain in an organized or integrated manner, these sensations can be used by an individual to form perceptions and create learning experiences. Dysfunction occurs when the nervous system is unable to integrate incoming information smoothly, resulting in the misinterpretation of information and roadblocks to creating appropriate perceptions, behaviors, and learning experiences. In this article, the authors explain how sensory integration affects behavior and the interventions to promote sensory integration for all children. (Contains 1 table.)

This study investigated the effect of Systematic Desensitisation (SD) therapy on the reduction of test anxiety on some identified test anxious students. In addition, three secondary independent variables were studied along. These were entry test anxiety level, sex, and locus of control. A 2 x 2 x 2 way factorial design was employed. SD was found effective in the reduction of test anxiety of the students who were test anxious F-ratio= 9.261 with df (1,74). Entry test anxiety level of subjects was found to be significant on the level of reduction of test anxiety students F= 27.458 with df (1,74). Sex had no significant effect on the reduction of test anxiety of students F = 0.079 with df of (1,74) and p greater than 0.05. There was no significant interaction effect of therapy and secondary independent variables. However, there was a significant interaction effect of entry test anxiety level and therapy at the end of treatment. Since SD has been found to be effective in the reduction of test anxiety among adolescents in Nigerian schools; it is recommended that this therapy be used in the treatment of test anxiety. It should be noted that before the treatment of test anxiety, the entry test anxiety level of subjects must be considered so as to set a baseline for the therapy. (Contains 3 tables.)