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Gorlin syndrome (MIM 109,400), a cancer predisposition syndrome related to a constitutional pathogenic variation (PV) of a gene in the Sonic Hedgehog pathway (PTCH1 or SUFU), is associated with a broad spectrum of benign and malignant tumors. Basal cell carcinomas (BCC), odontogenic keratocysts and medulloblastomas are the main tumor types encountered, but meningiomas, ovarian or cardiac fibromas and sarcomas have also been described. The clinical features and tumor risks are different depending on the causative gene. Due to the rarity of this condition, there is little data on phenotype-genotype correlations. This report summarizes genotype-based recommendations for screening patients with PTCH1 and SUFU-related Gorlin syndrome, discussed during a workshop of the Host Genome Working Group of the European branch of the International Society of Pediatric Oncology (SIOPE HGWG) held in January 2020. In order to allow early detection of BCC, dermatologic examination should start at age 10 in PTCH1, and at age 20 in SUFU PV carriers. Odontogenic keratocyst screening, based on odontologic examination, should begin at age 2 with annual orthopantogram beginning around age 8 for PTCH1 PV carriers only. For medulloblastomas, repeated brain MRI from birth to 5 years should be proposed for SUFU PV carriers only. Brain MRI for meningiomas and pelvic ultrasound for ovarian fibromas should be offered to both PTCH1 and SUFU PV carriers. Follow-up of patients treated with radiotherapy should be prolonged and thorough because of the risk of secondary malignancies. Prospective evaluation of evidence of the effectiveness of these surveillance recommendations is required.

BackgroundCopy number variants (CNVs) are pervasive in the human genome but potential disease associations with rare CNVs have not been comprehensively assessed in large datasets. We analysed rare CNVs in genes and non-coding regions for 86,788 breast cancer cases and 76,122 controls of European ancestry with genome-wide array data.ResultsGene burden tests detected the strongest association for deletions in BRCA1 (P= 3.7E-18). Nine other genes were associated with a p-value < 0.01 including known susceptibility genes CHEK2 (P= 0.0008), ATM (P= 0.002) and BRCA2 (P= 0.008). Outside the known genes we detected associations with p-values < 0.001 for either overall or subtype-specific breast cancer at nine deletion regions and four duplication regions. Three of the deletion regions were in established common susceptibility loci.ConclusionsThis is the first genome-wide analysis of rare CNVs in a large breast cancer case-control dataset. We detected associations with exonic deletions in established breast cancer susceptibility genes. We also detected suggestive associations with non-coding CNVs in known and novel loci with large effects sizes. Larger sample sizes will be required to reach robust levels of statistical significance.

Purpose: This study aimed to report the uptake of hysterectomy and/or bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (BSO) to prevent gynaecological cancers (risk-reducing surgery [RRS]) in carriers of pathogenic MMR (path_MMR) variants.Methods: The Prospective Lynch Syndrome Database (PLSD) was used to investigate RRS by a cross-sectional study in 2292 female path_MMR carriers aged 30-69 years.Results: Overall, 144, 79, and 517 carriers underwent risk-reducing hysterectomy, BSO, or both combined, respectively. Two-thirds of procedures before 50 years of age were combined hysterectomy and BSO, and 81% of all procedures included BSO. Risk-reducing hysterectomy was performed before age 50 years in 28%, 25%, 15%, and 9%, and BSO in 26%, 25%, 14% and 13% of path_MLH1, path_MSH2, path_MSH6, and path_PMS2 carriers, respectively. Before 50 years of age, 107 of 188 (57%) BSO and 126 of 204 (62%) hysterectomies were performed in women without any prior cancer, and only 5% (20/392) were performed simultaneously with colorectal cancer (CRC) surgery.Conclusion: Uptake of RRS before 50 years of age was low, and RRS was rarely undertaken in association with surgical treatment of CRC. Uptake of RRS aligned poorly with gene-and age-associated risk estimates for endometrial or ovarian cancer that were published recently from PLSD and did not correspond well with current clinical guidelines. The reasons should be clarified. Decision-making on opting for or against RRS and its timing should be better aligned with predicted risk and mortality for endometrial and ovarian cancer in Lynch syn-drome to improve outcomes. (C) 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Hereditary breast cancers, mainly due to BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations, account for only 5-10% of this disease. The threshold for genetic testing is a 10% likelihood of detecting a mutation, as determined by validated models such as BOADICEA and Manchester Scoring System. A 90-95% reduction in breast cancer risk can be achieved with bilateral risk-reducing mastectomy in unaffected BRCA mutation carriers. In patients with BRCA-associated breast cancer, there is a 40% risk of contralateral breast cancer and hence risk-reducing contralateral mastectomy is recommended, which can be performed simultaneously with surgery for unilateral breast cancer. Other options for risk management include surveillance by mammogram and breast magnetic resonance imaging, and chemoprevention with hormonal agents. With the advent of next-generation sequencing and development of multigene panel testing, the cost and time taken for genetic testing have reduced, making it possible for treatment-focused genetic testing. There are also drugs such as the PARP inhibitors that specifically target the BRCA mutation. Risk management multidisciplinary clinics are designed to quantify risk, and offer advice on preventative strategies. However, such services are only possible in high-income settings. In low-resource settings, the prohibitive cost of testing and the lack of genetic counsellors are major barriers to setting up a breast cancer genetics service. Family history is often not well documented because of the stigma associated with cancer. Breast cancer genetics services remain an unmet need in low- and middle-income countries, where the priority is to optimise access to quality treatment.

BACKGROUND: As part of the Magnetic Resonance Imaging for Breast Screening (MARIBS), Study women with a family history of breast cancer were assessed psychologically to determine the relative psychological impact and acceptability of annual screening using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and conventional X-ray mammography (XRM). METHODS: Women were assessed psychologically at baseline (4 weeks before MRI and XRM), immediately before, and immediately after, both MRI and XRM, and at follow-up (6 weeks after the scans). RESULTS: Overall, both procedures were found to be acceptable with high levels of satisfaction (MRI, 96.3% and XRM, 97.7%; NS) and low levels of psychological morbidity throughout, particularly at 6-week follow-up. Low levels of self-reported distress were reported for both procedures (MRI, 13.5% and XRM, 7.8%), although MRI was more distressing (P=0.005). Similarly, higher anticipatory anxiety was reported before MRI than before XRM (P=0.003). Relative to XRM, MRI-related distress was more likely to persist at 6 weeks after the scans in the form of intrusive MRI-related thoughts (P=0.006) and total MRI-related distress (P=0.014). More women stated that they intended to return for XRM (96.3%) than for MRI (88%; P, The national study is supported by a grant from the UK Medical Research Council (G960413)

BackgroundGermline mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes have significant clinical implications for both risk-reducing and early surveillance management. The third and most recent revision of the Manchester scoring system (MSS3) used to distinguish patients indicated for germline BRCA1/2 testing included further adjustments for triple negative breast cancer, high-grade serous ovarian cancer and human epidermal growth factor 2 (HER2) receptor status. This study aims to evaluate the relative effectiveness of MSS3 in a Southeast Asian population.MethodsAll patients in our centre were tested using next-generation sequencing (NGS) panels that included full gene sequencing as well as coverage for large deletions/duplications in BRCA1/2. We calculated MSS1-3 scores for index patients between 2014 and 2017 who had undergone BRCA1/2 genetic testing and recorded their genetic test results. MSS1-3 outcomes were compared using receiver operating characteristic analysis, while associations with predictors were investigated using Fisher’s exact test and logistics regression. Calculations were performed using Medcalc17.ResultsOf the 330 included patients, 47 (14.2%) were found to have a germline mutation in BRCA1 or BRCA2. A positive HER2 receptor was associated with a lower likelihood of a BRCA1/2mutation (OR=0.125, 95% CI 0.016 to 0.955; P=0.007), while high-grade serous ovarian cancer was conversely associated with an increased likelihood of a BRCA1/2 mutation (OR=5.128, 95% CI 1.431 to 18.370; P=0.012). At the 10% threshold, 43.0% (142/330) of patients were indicated for testing under MSS3, compared with 35.8% (118/330) for MSS1% and 36.4% (120/330) for MSS2. At the 10% threshold, MSS3 sensitivity was 91.5% and specificity 65.0%, significantly better than the previous MSS1 (P=0.037) and MSS2 (P=0.032) models.ConclusionOur results indicate that the updated MSS3 outperforms previous iterations and relative to the Manchester population, is just as effective in identifying patients with BRCA1/2 mutations in a Southeast Asian population.

We report on the development of a low-cost, adjustable high-voltage/high-power nanosecond-pulse generator for diffuse plasma generation in a high-pressure gas-discharge cell. The generator produces scalable impulsions of 0–40 kV, at an adjustable pulse-repetition frequency up to 7 kHz. Details pertaining to its working principles, electrical architecture, components, and specifications are presented. Voltage and current pulses are measured for resistive loads of 1.5 $\text{k}\Omega $ to 5 $\text{M}\Omega $ . The energy per pulse along with the generator’s overall efficiency is presented as a function of the input voltage. A maximum value of 13.5 mJ/pulse can be delivered to a 3- $\text{k}\Omega $ load. Our preliminary investigation using a pin-to-plate geometry in air and at pressures up to 2.75 atm [280.5 kPa] demonstrates the production of uniform diffuse plasma volumes. The domain of existence of the diffuse plasma regime is briefly explored, as a function of pressure and voltage pulse amplitude.

Background It is common for patients with neurofibromatosis type 2 to develop bilateral profound hearing loss hearing loss, and this is one of the main determinants of quality of life in this patient group. Objectives The aim of this systematic review was to review the current literature regarding hearing outcomes of treatments for vestibular schwannomas in neurofibromatosis type 2 including conservative and medical management, radiotherapy, hearing preservation surgery and auditory implantation in order to determine the most effective way of preserving or rehabilitating hearing. Search strategy A MESH search in PubMed using search terms (('Neurofibromatosis 2' [Mesh]) AND 'Neuroma, Acoustic'[Mesh]) AND 'Hearing Loss' [Mesh] was performed. A search using keywords was also performed. Studies with adequate hearing outcome data were included. With the exception of the cochlear implant studies (cohort size was very small), case studies were excluded. Evaluation method The GRADE system was used to assess quality of publication. Formal statistical analysis of data was not performed because of very heterogenous data reporting. Results Conservative management offers the best chance of hearing preservation in stable tumours. The use of bevacizumab probably improves the likelihood of hearing preservation in growing tumours in the short term and is probably more effective than hearing preservation surgery and radiotherapy in preserving hearing. Of the hearing preservation interventions, hearing preservation surgery probably offers better hearing preservation rates than radiotherapy for small tumours but recurrence rates for hearing preservation surgery were high. For patients with profound hearing loss, cochlear implantation provides significantly better auditory outcomes than auditory brainstem implantation. Patients with untreated stable tumours are likely to achieve the best outcomes from cochlear implantation. Those who have had their tumours treated with surgery or radiotherapy do not gain as much benefit from cochlear implantation than those with untreated tumours. Conclusions This review summarises the current literature related to hearing preservation/rehabilitation in patients with NF2. Whilst it provides indicative data, the quality of the data was low and should be interpreted with care. It is also important to consider that the management of vestibular schwannomas in NF2 is complex and decision-making is determined by many factors, not just the need to preserve hearing.

La neurofibromatosi tipo 2 [NF2] è una malattia genetica a trasmissione autosomica dominante [MIM # 101000]. Clinicamente è caratterizzata da: (1) schwannomi bilaterali del (VIII) nervo acustico/vestibolare; (2) cataratta giovanile o amartomi retinici; (3) schwannomi a carico dei nervi periferici e dei nervi cranici; (4) tumori multipli del sistema nervoso centrale (es., meningiomi, astrocitomi, ependimomi); (5) lesioni cutanee: (a) placche NF2 (schwannomi cutanei); (b) (poche) macchie caffellatte; (6) “malformazioni dello sviluppo corticale cerebrale”. La prevalenza della (forma sintomatica di) NF2 nella popolazione generale è di 1 su 100.000-200.000 individui con un’incidenza di 1 su 33.000 nati. La forma classica a esordio nel giovane adulto è conosciuta come forma di Gardner, (esordio intorno ai 20-30 anni d’età) con manifestazioni legate agli schwannomi bilaterali del nervo acustico/vestibolare (diminuzione/perdita progressiva dell’udito, tinnito, vertigini) e/o più raramente con manifestazioni da (altri) tumori del sistema nervoso centrale e/o periferico. In età pediatrica il fenotipo è diverso (forma di Wishart): per primi compaiono abitualmente i tumori del sistema nervoso centrale in assenza di schwannomi vestibolari; si possono avere macchie caffellatte e placche NF2 e solo dopo anni i tumori del nervo cranico VIII e di altri nervi cranici. Il quadro è più grave. Esiste anche una forma “congenita” ad esordio nei primi giorni/mesi di vita, con schwannomi vestibolari di piccole dimensioni (stabili nel tempo: anche per anni/decenni ma con improvvisa e rapida progressione) e numerose placche NF2; in questa forma le altre manifestazioni (es. meningiomi, altri tumori, altri schwannomi) sono spesso più gravi e progressive delle altre forme. Il gene responsabile della NF2 è localizzato sul cromosoma 22q12.1. Il prodotto genico della NF2 è conosciuto con il nome di schwannomina o merlina [dalla famiglia di proteine 4.1 del tipo moesina-ezrina-radixina/ERM alla quale appartiene il gene della NF2) e ha funzioni di regolazione della crescita e del rimodellamento cellulare (soppressione della crescita cellulare e della tumorigenesi)]. Alcune persone possono presentare tutte le (o parte delle) manifestazioni della NF2 in un emilato o in segmenti corporei circoscritti [NF2 a mosaico]. Altre persone presentano schwannomi (confermati istologicamente) dei nervi periferici (non intradermici) e/o delle radici gangliari in assenza di tumori del nervo vestibolare (o di altri nervi cranici: anche se in alcuni casi vi possono essere anche tumori unilaterali o bilaterali del nervo acustico/vestibolare e/o dei nervi cranici misti) o di altri segni diagnostici per la NF2 [Schwannomatosi, SWNTS]. L’esordio in questa forma è intorno ai 30 anni d’età (sono conosciuti casi in età pediatrica) con tumori in svariate sedi (abitualmente tronco e arti). Si conoscono due forme principali: (1) SWNTS1 [MIM # 162091] causata da alterazioni del gene SMARCB1 [regolatore della cromatina actina-dipendente associato alla matrice e correlato alle proteina SWI/SBF, sub-famiglia B, membro di tipo 1; MIM # 601607], sul cromosoma 22q11.23 (posizione centromerica rispetto al gene della NF2); (2) SWNTS2 [MIM # 615670] causata da alterazioni del gene LZTR1 [regolatore della trascrizione di tipo 1 legato alla Leucina; MIM # 600574], cromosoma 22q11.21 (posizione centromerica rispetto al gene SMARCB1) che codifica per una proteina, membro della super-famiglia BTB-kelch. Il meccanismo molecolare della Schwannomatosi comprende: (1) mutazione germinale del gene SMARCB1 o del gene LZTR1; (2) ampia delezione all’interno del cromosoma 22 (con perdita del gene NF2 e dell’allele intatto SMARCB1 o LZTR1); e (3) mutazione somatica dell’allele intatto del gene NF2 [meccanismo conosciuto come “four hits”: “Quadrupla alterazione” (su entrambi gli alleli dei due geni SWNTS/NF2), con tre passaggi consecutivi]. Negli ultimi anni, accanto alle tradizionali terapie chirurgiche e/o radioterapiche sono stati anche impiegati diversi farmaci “biologici” (es., Lapatinib e Bevacizumab) con effetti di riduzione/arresto della crescita dei tipici tumori NF2.

This paper outlines the design and implementation of a solid-state high-voltage, high-frequency pulse generator used to drive capacitive loads and particularly, nonequilibrium plasmas at atmospheric pressure. The generator is capable of producing open circuit pulses of 0–12 kV with a 300 ns duration (full-width at half-maximum) at a repetition frequency of 0–25 kHz. The working principles of the generator are presented, along with its electrical diagnostics to illustrate its operation with capacitive loads. The generator was applied to a pin-to-plane electrode configuration to generate a diffuse nonequilibrium plasma discharge with peak voltage of 12 kV. Energy deposition and average power required to drive the discharges in open air at 25 kHz were calculated to be 112 $\mu \text{J}$ /pulse and 2.80 W. The generator was also applied to lean, stagnation-plate stabilized V-shaped flames to increase their blowoff velocity. A 28%–51% increase of the blowoff velocity is observed using a discharge with the peak voltage of 6.2 kV, and the repetition rate of 25 kHz.

Introduction Rates of contralateral risk reducing mastectomy (CRRM) are rising despite a paucity of data to support this practice. Surgeons work as part of the multidisciplinary team (MDT). They may counsel women on these requests without the benefit of established guidelines or agreed protocol. This study assessed the practices and perceptions of breast and plastic surgeons in England on CRRM. Methods A postal questionnaire was sent to 455 breast and 364 plastic surgeons practising in England. Basic demographics, trends in CRRM, risk assessment, role of the MDT and knowledge base were assessed. Results The response rate among breast surgeons was 48.3% (220/455) and 12.6% (46/364) among plastic surgeons. Nearly half (44%) of the respondents felt there had been an increase in rates of CRRM over the last three years. Seventy-one per cent of those surveyed performed 1–5 CRRMs annually while sixteen per cent did not perform this procedure at all. A third (32%) of respondents correctly quoted their patients an annual risk of 0.5–0.7%. Funding was refused in 4% of cases and 43% of the surgeons felt that in the future they would have to apply to relevant clinical commissioning groups. Over half (58%) of all respondents reported that decisions for CRRM are always discussed in the MDT meeting but 6% stated that these cases are never discussed by the MDT. BRCA mutation was perceived as the main risk factor for contralateral breast cancer by 81% of respondents. Surgeons felt that women requested CRRM mainly to alleviate anxiety. The next most common reasons were carriage of BRCA mutation and a desire to have reconstructions match. Conclusions A wide variation of surgical practices and perceptions exist in assessing women for CRRM. Guidelines to standardise practices are required.

Purpose Endometrial cancer (EC) is often the sentinel cancer in women with Lynch syndrome (LS). However, efforts to implement universal LS screening in EC patients have been hampered by a lack of evidence detailing the proportion of EC patients that would be expected to screen positive for LS. Methods Studies were identified by electronic searches of Medline, Embase, Cochrane CENTRAL and Web of Science. Proportions of test positivity were calculated by random and fixed-effects meta-analysis models. I2 score was used to assess heterogeneity across studies. Results Fifty-three studies, including 12,633 EC patients, met the inclusion criteria. The overall proportion of endometrial tumors with microsatellite instability or mismatch repair (MMR) deficiency by immunohistochemistry (IHC) was 0.27 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.25–0.28, I2: 71%) and 0.26 (95% CI 0.25–0.27, I2: 88%), respectively. Of those women with abnormal tumor testing, 0.29 (95% CI 0.25–0.33, I2: 83%) had LS-associated pathogenic variants on germline testing; therefore around 3% of ECs can be attributed to LS. Preselection of EC cases did increase the proportion of germline LS diagnoses. Conclusion The current study suggests that prevalence of LS in EC patients is approximately 3%, similar to that of colorectal cancer patients; therefore our data support the implementation of universal EC screening for LS.

The production of ammonia, an essential precursor to fertilizer, is currently achieved via the Haber-Bosch process and represents nearly 2% of annual global energy consumption [1]. Thus, new energy efficient and high yield ammonia production methods are of great interest. According to Le Chatelier 's principle, ammonia production requires low temperature and high pressure conditions [2]. Non-thermal plasma creates an ideal high-energy environment necessary to break nitrogen and hydrogen molecules to produce ammonia. However, maintaining a low temperature non-thermal plasma of useful volume at high pressure is exceedingly difficult. Common power supplies are unable to deliver the energy necessary to sustain a non-thermal plasma above atmospheric pressure. Therefore, this study required the use of a homemade high voltage double polarity nanosecond-pulsed power supply to sustain a non-thermal plasma at high pressure. The highvoltage pulses were delivered simultaneously at nanosecond intervals, therefore preventing the streamer-to-spark transition and favoring low temperature conditions.

Neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2; MIM # 101000) is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by the development of vestibular schwannomas (VSs); schwannomas of other cranial, spinal, and cutaneous nerves; cranial and spinal meningiomas or other central nervous system tumors (eg, ependymomas and astrocytomas) or both. Additional features include eye (eg, early onset cataracts, optic nerve sheath meningiomas, retinal or pigment epithelial hamartomas or both, and epithelial retinal membranes) and skin abnormalities (eg, flat dermal [NF2 plaques] or spherical subcutaneous nodular schwannomas or both, and few, atypical café-au-lait spots). Clinically, children with NF2 fall into 2 main groups: (1) congenital NF2 with bilateral VSs detected as early as the first days to months of life, which can be stable or asymptomatic for 1-2 decades and suddenly progress; and (2) severe prepubertal (Wishart type) NF2 with multiple (and rapidly progressive) central nervous system tumors other-than-VS, which usually presents first, years before VSs, both associated with more marked skin and eye involvement (vs the classical mild adult [Gardner type] NF2, with bilateral VSs presenting in young adulthood, sometimes as the only disease feature). Individuals manifesting unilateral VS associated with ipsilateral meningiomas or multiple schwannomas localized to a part of the peripheral nervous system have mosaic or segmental NF2; individuals developing multiple nonVS, nonintradermal cranial, spinal, and peripheral schwannomas (histologically proven) have schwannomatosis (SWNTS). NF2 is caused by mutations in the NF2 gene at chromosome 22q12.1, which encodes for a protein called merlin or schwannomin, most similar to the exrin-readixin-moesin proteins; mosaic or segmental NF2 is because of mosaic phenomena for the NF2 gene, whereas SWNTS is caused by germline and possibly mosaic mutations either in the SMARCB1 gene (SWNTS1; MIM # 162091) or the LZTR1 gene (SWNTS2; MIM # 615670), both falling within the 22q region. Data driven from in vitro and animal studies on the merlin pathway allowed biologically targeted treatment strategies (employing Lapatinib, Erlotinib, Everolimus, Picropodophyllin, OSU.03012, Imatinib, Sorafenib, and Bevacizumab) aimed at multiple tumor shrinkage or regression or both and tumor arrest of progression with functional improvement.

BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers have an increased risk of contralateral breast cancer after primary breast cancer. Risk reduction strategies are discussed after assessment of risk factors for developing contralateral breast cancer. We assessed potential risk factors that could be of use in clinical practice, including the novel use of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) testing. 506 BRCA1 and 505 BRCA2 mutation carriers with a diagnosis of breast cancer were observed for up to 30 years. The risk of a contralateral breast cancer is approximately 2-3% per year, remaining constant for at least 20 years. This was similar in both BRCA1 and BRCA2 carriers. Initial breast cancer before age 40-years was a significant risk factor, which was more pronounced in BRCA1 patients. The effect of risk-reducing oophorectomy on contralateral breast cancer risk may be overestimated because of bias. No significant association was found between overall breast cancer risk SNP score and contralateral breast cancer development. Young mutation carriers, particularly those with BRCA1 mutations, who develop breast cancer have a significantly higher risk of developing contralateral breast cancer, remaining constant for over 20 years. Contralateral risk-reducing mastectomy should be considered in this group, in particular as there is a survival benefit. Caution is advised when counselling women considering risk-reducing oophorectomy as, after accounting for statistical bias, the associated risk reduction was found to be non-significant, and potentially smaller than has been previously reported. SNP testing did not add any further discriminatory information when assessing contralateral breast cancer risk.

Introduction: The molecular pathogenesis of the inherited tumour predisposition syndrome, neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2), has been the subject of intense scrutiny in recent years. Better understanding of the multiple physiological roles of the NF2 protein Merlin, and increasing availability of molecularly targeted therapies have for the first time made medical treatments a feasible option for patients with NF2.Areas covered: In this report we describe the clinical features of NF2, we summarise recent advances in NF2 biology and describe the evidence underlying current management, focusing particularly on the activity of anti-angiogenic agents and on therapies that target Merlin’s interaction partners.Expert opinion: The anti-angiogenic agent bevacizumab is the first medical therapy to show real promise in the treatment of this disease, but its effects are limited to disease stabilisation and to partial imaging and hearing responses. The results of early-phase trials targeted towards Merlin’s partners have...

AIM: Colonic surveillance reduces the lifetime risk of colorectal cancer in patients with Lynch syndrome (hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer) from 60 to 80% to 10% and confers a 7-year survival advantage. The British Society of Gastroenterologists recommends colonoscopy at least every 2 years from the age of 25. Currently in the UK, genetic diagnosis is made by a regional genetics service, and screening recommendations are made to the referring clinician. The aim of this study was to investigate compliance with and the effectiveness of large bowel surveillance in Lynch syndrome. METHOD: A retrospective longitudinal study of Lynch syndrome mutation carriers on the Regional Familial Colorectal Cancer Registry under and not under screening was conducted. To investigate screening compliance, patients were included if they were alive at the start of the study. Data were gathered on timeliness, quality and outcome of screening. To examine the effectiveness of screening, the cumulative incidence of colorectal cancer was estimated using Kaplan-Meier curves and the screened population compared with patients not being screened. RESULTS: A total of 227 Lynch syndrome mutation carriers were under screening at 26 hospitals. We assessed 439 colonoscopies for timeliness, of which 68% were compliant (interval < 27 months). Compliance on the 1 November 2011 was 87%. The cumulative incidence of colorectal cancer to the age of 70 was 25% (95% CI 17-32%) in the surveillance population and 81% (95% CI 78-84%) in 689 mutation-positive patients not being screened (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: Overall, 68% of colonoscopies were on time. The incidence of colorectal cancer was greatly reduced by screening but remained significant. Patients with Lynch syndrome need proactive surveillance management.

Background and aims Lynch syndrome (LS) patients have DNA mismatch repair deficiency and up to 80% lifetime risk of colorectal cancer (CRC). Screening of mutation carriers reduces CRC incidence and mortality. Selection for constitutional mutation testing relies on family history (Amsterdam and Bethesda Guidelines) and tumour-derived biomarkers. Initial biomarker analysis uses mismatch repair protein immunohistochemistry and microsatellite instability. Abnormalities in either identify mismatch repair deficiency but do not differentiate sporadic epigenetic defects, due to MLH1 promoter region methylation (13% of CRCs) from LS (4% of CRCs). A diagnostic biomarker capable of making this distinction would be valuable. This study compared two biomarkers in tumours with mismatch repair deficiency; quantification of methylation of the MLH1 promoter region using a novel assay and BRAF c.1799T>A, p.(Val600Glu) mutation status in the identification of constitutional mutations. Methods Tumour DNA was extracted (formalin fixed, paraffin embedded, FFPE tissue) and pyrosequencing used to test for MLH1 promoter methylation and presence of the BRAF c.1799T>A, p.(Val600Glu) mutation 71 CRCs from individuals with pathogenic MLH1 mutations and 73 CRCs with sporadic MLH1 loss. Specificity and sensitivity was compared. Findingss Unmethylated MLH1 promoter: sensitivity 94.4% (95% CI 86.2% to 98.4%), specificity 87.7% (95% CI 77.9% to 94.2%), Wild-type BRAF (codon 600): sensitivity 65.8% (95% CI 53.7% to 76.5%), specificity 98.6% (95% CI 92.4% to 100.0%) for the identification of those with pathogenic MLH1 mutations. Conclusions Quantitative MLH1 promoter region methylation using pyrosequencing is superior to BRAF codon 600 mutation status in identifying constitutional mutations in mismatch repair deficient tumours.

Objective Lynch syndrome (LS) is an inherited tumor predisposition condition caused by mutations in the mismatch repair (MMR) genes. Mutation carriers are at increased risk of various malignancies, including ovarian cancer (OC). Relatively little is known about the pathological features and clinical behavior of LS associated OC. Methods We analyzed the data of 1047 proven MMR mutated individuals from a prospectively maintained database at a large referral center for genomic medicine in the North West of England. Data were crosschecked with pathology reports, the National Cancer Registry and death certificates, where appropriate. Data from gynecological surveillance and risk reducing surgery were analyzed. Results We identified 53 cases of LSAOC in proven MMR mutated individuals. The cumulative risk of LSAOC was 20% at age 80 in those who retained their ovaries. LSAOC presented at an earlier age (average 51, range 24–70 years) than sporadic OC. The predominant histological subtype was endometrioid adenocarcinoma (53%). Most cases presented early (85% at stage I/II vs. 15% at stage III/IV, p, Highlights • Lynch syndrome-associated ovarian cancer (LSAOC) is rare and difficult to study. • This is the largest reported series of OC from proven Lynch syndrome carriers. • Endometrioid OC was most common, followed by high grade serous, clear cell and mixed histology. • Most LSAOC was detected at stage 1 and overall 5-year survival was excellent at 80%. • Surveillance found 2 LSAOC; 3 more were diagnosed following surgery for screen-detected endometrial cancer.

Recently, high-voltage pulsed power has received increasing attention in the fields of plasma-assisted ignition1, and combustion2. These applications require a high degree of disequilibrium and overvoltage to produce highly energetic electrons and molecules, which drive the plasma chemistry. Therefore, high-voltage, low duty cycle, and high frequency pulse generators are required as sources for the production of such energetic particles. A few commercial solid-state generators are available, but their introduction in research laboratory and industrial environments is hindered by their high cost.

Plasma assisted combustion (PAC) by pulsed-plasma discharge has received increasing attention in the last few years1. This technology shows much promise in the field of flame stabilization2, and flame acceleration3. Here, PAC is of particular interest to the gas turbine industry for use during transient engine operation. Such an operation mode may cause instabilities and lead to the extinction of lean-burning flames.

The MSH2 c.388_389del mutation has occasionally been described in Lynch families worldwide. At the Portuguese Oncology Institute in Porto, Portugal, we have identified 16 seemingly unrelated families with this germline mutation. To evaluate if this alteration is a founder or a recurrent mutation we performed haplotype analysis in the 16 Portuguese index cases and 55 relatives, as well as in four index cases and 13 relatives reported from Germany, Scotland, England, and Argentina. In the Portuguese families we observed a shared haplotype of approximately 10 Mb and all were originated from the north of Portugal. These results suggest that this alteration is a founder mutation in Portugal with a relatively recent origin. In the reported families outside Portugal with this mutation different haplotype backgrounds were observed, supporting the hypothesis that it occurred de novo on multiple occasions. We also conclude that the high proportion of families with the MSH2 c.388_389del mutation indicates that screening for this alteration as a first step may be cost-effective in the genetic testing of Lynch syndrome suspects of Portuguese ancestry, especially those originating from the north of Portugal.

Since the localization and discovery of the first high-risk breast cancer (BC) genes in 1990, there has been a substantial progress in unravelling its familial component. Increasing numbers of women at risk of BC are coming forward requesting advice on their risk and what they can do about it. Three groups of genetic predisposition alleles have so far been identified with high-risk genes conferring 40-85% lifetime risk including BRCA1, BRCA2 and TP53. Moderate risk genes (20-40% risk) including PALB1, BRIP, ATM and CHEK2, and a host of low-risk common alleles identified largely through genome-wide association studies. Currently, only BRCA1, BRCA2 and TP53 are used in clinical practice on a wide scale, although testing of up to 50-100 gene loci may be possible in the future utilizing next-generation technology.

Background: Triple-negative (TN) tumours are the predominant breast cancer subtype in BRCA1 mutation carriers. Recently, it was proposed that all individuals below 50 years of age with TN breast cancer should be offered BRCA testing. We have evaluated the BRCA1 mutation frequency and the implications for clinical practice of undertaking genetic testing in women with TN breast cancer. Methods: We undertook BRCA1 mutation analysis in 308 individuals with TN breast cancer, 159 individuals from unselected series of breast cancer and 149 individuals from series ascertained on the basis of young age and/or family history. Results: BRCA1 mutations were present in 45 out of 308 individuals. Individuals with TN cancer 10% likelihood of carrying a BRCA1 mutation in both the unselected (11 out of 58, 19%) and selected (26 out of 111, 23%) series. However, over a third would not have been offered testing using existing criteria. We estimate that testing all individuals with TN breast cancer 10% likelihood of carrying a BRCA1 mutation and are therefore eligible for testing in most centres. However, implementation may place short-term logistical and financial burdens on genetic services.

Background: Women at high ovarian cancer risk, especially those with mutations in BRCA1/BRCA2, are encouraged to undergo bilateral risk-reducing salpingo-oophorectomy (BRRSPO) prior to the natural menopause. The decision to use HRT to cover the period of oestrogen deprivation up to 50 years of age is difficult because of balancing the considerations of breast cancer risk, bone and cardiovascular health. Methods: We reviewed by questionnaire 289 women after BRRSPO aged ⩽48 years because of high ovarian cancer risk; 212 (73%) of women responded. Results: Previous HRT users (n=67) had significantly worse endocrine symptom scores than 67 current users (P=0.006). A total of 123 (58%) of women had ⩾24 months of oestrogen deprivation

Background: There are relatively few articles addressing long-term follow-up in women with breast cancer at very young ages. Methods: We have updated and extended our population-based analysis of breast cancer diagnosed at the age ⩽30 years in North-west England to include an extra 15 patients with mutation testing in BRCA1, BRCA2 and TP53, with 115 of 288 consecutive cases being tested. Kaplan–Meier curves were generated to assess overall survival, contralateral breast cancer and other second primaries. Results: Survival analysis of all 288 patients showed poor overall survival, although this improved from a 15-year survival of only 46% in those diagnosed between 1980 and 1989 to 58% in those diagnosed between 1990 and 1997 (P=0.05). Contralateral breast cancer rates were at a steady rate of 0.6 per 1000, although the rates in mutation carriers were ∼2 per 1000. Altogether, 16 BRCA1, 9 BRCA2 and 6 TP53 mutations have now been found among the 115 cases on whom DNA analysis has been performed. BRCAPRO accurately predicted the number of carriers for BRCA1 and BRCA2 and was sensitive and specific at the 10 and 20% threshold, respectively. However, BRCAPRO did not seem to give any weight to DCIS, which accounted for two BRCA1 carriers and three TP53 carriers and overpredicted mutations at the high end of the spectrum, with only 6 of 11 (54%) with a >90% probability having identifiable BRCA1/2 mutations. Interpretation: Rates of new primaries are predicted to some extent by mutation status. BRCAPRO is useful at determining those patients aged ⩽30 years to be tested.

Objective:To assess the outcome of conservative management of vestibular schwannoma.Study design:Observational study.Setting:Tertiary referral centre.Patients:Four hundred and thirty-six patients with vestibular schwannoma (490 tumours), including 327 sporadic tumours and 163 tumours in 109 patients with neurofibromatosis type two.Main outcome measures:The relationship of tumour growth to tumour size at presentation, and to certain demographic features.Results:The initial tumour size was significantly larger in the neurofibromatosis type two group (11 mm) than in the sporadic vestibular schwannoma group (5.1 mm). In both groups, 68 per cent of tumours did not grow during follow up (mean 3.6 years; range one to 14 years). The mean growth rate was 1.1 mm/year (range 0–15 mm/year) for sporadic tumours and 1.7 mm/year (range 0–18 mm/year) for neurofibromatosis type two tumours. The tumour growth rate correlated positively with tumour size in the sporadic tumour group, and correlated negatively with age in the neurofibromatosis type two group.Conclusion:Two-thirds of vestibular schwannomas did not grow. Radiological surveillance is an acceptable approach in carefully selected patients. Once a sporadic vestibular schwannoma reaches 2 cm in intracranial diameter, it is likely to continue growing. We do not recommend conservative management for sporadic tumours with an intracranial diameter of 1.5 cm or more. Vestibular schwannoma management is more complex in patients with neurofibromatosis type two.

BACKGROUND: The TP53 pathway, in which TP53 and its negative regulator MDM2 are the central elements, has an important role in carcinogenesis, particularly in BRCA1- and BRCA2-mediated carcinogenesis. A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the promoter region of MDM2 (309T > G, rs2279744) and a coding SNP of TP53 (Arg72Pro, rs1042522) have been shown to be of functional significance. METHODS: To investigate whether these SNPs modify breast cancer risk for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers, we pooled genotype data on the TP53 Arg72Pro SNP in 7011 mutation carriers and on the MDM2 309T > G SNP in 2222 mutation carriers from the Consortium of Investigators of Modifiers of BRCA1/2 (CIMBA). Data were analysed using a Cox proportional hazards model within a retrospective likelihood framework. RESULTS: No association was found between these SNPs and breast cancer risk for BRCA1 (TP53: per-allele hazard ratio (HR) = 1.01, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.93-1.10, P(trend) = 0.77; MDM2: HR = 0.96, 95% CI: 0.84-1.09, P(trend) = 0.54) or for BRCA2 mutation carriers (TP53: HR = 0.99, 95% CI: 0.87-1.12, P(trend) = 0.83; MDM2: HR = 0.98, 95% CI: 0.80-1.21, P(trend) = 0.88). We also evaluated the potential combined effects of both SNPs on breast cancer risk, however, none of their combined genotypes showed any evidence of association. CONCLUSION: There was no evidence that TP53 Arg72Pro or MDM2 309T > G, either singly or in combination, influence breast cancer risk in BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation carriers. British Journal of Cancer (2009) 101, 1456-1460. doi: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6605279 www.bjcancer.com Published online 25 August 2009 (C) 2009 Cancer Research UK

Multiple genetic loci confer susceptibility to breast and ovarian cancers. We have previously developed a model (BOADICEA) under which susceptibility to breast cancer is explained by mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2, as well as by the joint multiplicative effects of many genes (polygenic component). We have now updated BOADICEA using additional family data from two UK population-based studies of breast cancer and family data from BRCA1 and BRCA2 carriers identified by 22 population-based studies of breast or ovarian cancer. The combined data set includes 2785 families (301 BRCA1 positive and 236 BRCA2 positive). Incidences were smoothed using locally weighted regression techniques to avoid large variations between adjacent intervals. A birth cohort effect on the cancer risks was implemented, whereby each individual was assumed to develop cancer according to calendar period-specific incidences. The fitted model predicts that the average breast cancer risks in carriers increase in more recent birth cohorts. For example, the average cumulative breast cancer risk to age 70 years among BRCA1 carriers is 50% for women born in 1920-1929 and 58% among women born after 1950. The model was further extended to take into account the risks of male breast, prostate and pancreatic cancer, and to allow for the risk of multiple cancers. BOADICEA can be used to predict carrier probabilities and cancer risks to individuals with any family history, and has been implemented in a user-friendly Web-based program (http://www.srl.cam.ac.uk/ genepi/boadicea/boadicea_home.html). © 2008 Cancer Research UK.

Background Microsatellite instability (MSI) in colorectal cancer is caused by defective DNA mismatch repair (MMR). It is present in 15 per cent of sporadic colorectal cancers owing to epigenetic mutL homologue 1 (MLH1) inactivation. The evidence suggests that patients with tumours caused by defective DNA MMR do not benefit from 5-fluorouracil (5-FU)-based chemotherapy. Methods The proportion of cancers with defective DNA MMR identified by MSI analysis or immunohistochemistry was calculated from published data. The cost of analysis was compared with the potential savings if 5-FU-based chemotherapy was not administered to these patients. Results Some 16·3 per cent of sporadic colorectal cancers had defective DNA MMR. Immunostaining for MLH1 and mutS homologue 2 (MSH2) had a sensitivity of 92·4 per cent and a specificity of 99·6 per cent for identifying MSI-high tumours. The strongest predictive variable was right-sidedness, with positive and negative predictive values of 0·329 and 0·948 respectively. If 5-FU-based chemotherapy were not administered, potential savings of up to £1·2 million per 1000 patients tested could be made. Costs would be higher if alternative chemotherapeutic regimens were substituted as a result of testing. Conclusion Knowledge of MMR status may enable participation in trials of non-5-FU-based chemotherapy. The cost of MMR testing may be offset by more efficient use of chemotherapy.

Background Rates of contralateral risk-reducing mastectomy (CRRM) are rising, despite a decreasing global incidence of contralateral breast cancer. Reasons for requesting this procedure are complex, and we have previously shown a variable practice amongst breast and plastic surgeons in England. We propose a protocol, based on a published systematic review, a national UK survey and the Manchester experience of CRRM. Methods We reviewed the literature for risk factors for contralateral breast cancer and have devised a 5-step process that includes history taking, calculating contralateral breast cancer risk, cooling off period/counselling, multi-disciplinary assessment and consent. Members of the multi-disciplinary team included the breast surgeon, plastic surgeon and geneticist, who formulated guidelines. Results A simple formula to calculate the life-time risk of contralateral breast cancer has been devised. This allows stratification of breast cancer patients into different risk-groups: low, above average, moderate and high risk. Recommendations vary according to different risk groups. Conclusion These guidelines are a useful tool for clinicians counselling women requesting CRRM. Risk assessment is mandatory in this group of patients, and our formula allows evidence-based recommendations to be made.

There are good grounds for seeing a deep opposition between reason and violence. Yet some forms of argument appear to link the two; and a prominent example is the argumentum ad baculum, where the premise contains a threat. Consideration of the connection between premise and conclusion in such an argument can, it seems, yield some cases where the status of the author of the threat renders the argument not only valid but also sound. Examples of such arguments cluster in the areas near Pascal's Wager and Rawls' argument for justice. However even these arguments fail to effect a reconciliation between reason and violence.

The development of grain structure during Vacuum Arc Remelting (VAR) of INCONEL1 alloy 718, a nickel-based superalloy, is complex depending both on compositional variations and a range of process parameters. A multiscale model is presented which combines a macroscopic solution of the heat transfer, fluid flow and electromagnetism with a mesoscopic model of grain nucleation and growth. The model was used to investigate the influence of variations in process control parameters upon the macroscopic molten pool size and shape, together with the predicted grain structure. Simulations of structures produced for variations in melt rate, arc power and arc focus (both thermal and electrical) were compared with observations from instrumented and characterized plant-trials for steady state melting conditions; good agreement was achieved.

This paper presents a set of tools that are integrated with a word processor to produce documents in a visually impaired person's "preferred format." The paper considers the motivation for producing such tools and describes tools to perform spoken transcription (to cassette tape) and intelligent large print production.

This paper presents the results of an investigation into tools to support blind authors in the creation and checking of word processed documents. Eighty-nine documents produced by 14 blind authors are analyzed to determine and classify common types of layout and formatting errors. Based on the survey result, two prototype tools were developed to assist blind authors in the creation of documents: a letter creation wizard, which is used before the document is produced; and a format/layout checker that detects errors and presents them to the author after the document has been created. The results of a limited evaluation of the tools by 11 blind computer users are presented. A survey of word processor usage by these users is also presented and indicates that: authors have concerns about the appearance of the documents that they produce; many blind authors fail to use word processor tools such as spell checkers, grammar checkers and templates; and a significant number of blind people rely on sighted help for document creation or checking. The paper concludes that document formatting and layout is a problem for blind authors and that tools should be able to assist.

Background Neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2) is an autosomal dominant condition with high spontaneous mutation rate which predisposes to the development of multiple nerve sheath tumours (schwannomas), meningiomas and ependymoma. The cardinal feature and main diagnostic criterion for the diagnosis of NF2 remains the development of bilateral vestibular schwannoma (BVS). With increasing use of MRI screening the possibility of a ‘chance’ diagnosis of BVS has been mooted with a potential frequency of one in two million people in their lifetime. Until now, however, no evidence for such an event has been published. We aimed to demonstrate that chance occurrence can occur and to estimate its frequency among those with just BVS late in life. Methods Two vestibular schwannomas from the same patient were DNA sequenced and underwent loss of heterozygosity analysis. Results We show that a man who developed BVS, at ages 52 and 67 years developed these tumours sporadically by demonstrating that there were no molecular events in common between the two tumours. Furthermore from a database of over 1200 patients with NF2, we have estimated that ∼25% of cases of BVS over 50 years and 50% over 70 years of age where no other features of NF2 are present represent a chance occurrence rather than due to an underlying mosaic or constitutional NF2 mutation. Conclusions Patients presenting with BVS later in life should be appraised of the potential likelihood they may not have NF2 and the resultant further reduction in risks of transmission to offspring.

This study investigates the effect of diffuse non-equilibrium nanosecond-pulsed plasma at atmospheric pressure on a lean-premixed CH4-air flame (ϕ = 0.65, P ∼ 0.3 kW). The domain of diffuse plasma existence is explored for both the case of the cold flow (no flame) and the case where a flame is stabilized downstream. The dynamics of plasma propagation and the flame displacement, following a high-voltage pulse, were measured using intensified charge-coupled device imaging. The energy of the plasma was measured using electrical probes and measurements of the second positive system of nitrogen were used to determine the rotational temperature and vibrational populations in the plasma. The effect of plasma on a flame was investigated by varying the pulse repetition frequency gradually from 1 to 7 kHz. Time-resolved imaging of the plasma emission shows that the primary streamer travels at higher velocities with increased pulsing frequency and with the presence of a flame ignited downstream of the discharge. Tim...

Lynch syndrome (LS) is an autosomal dominant cancer predisposition syndrome with a 60-80% lifetime risk of colorectal cancer. We assessed the uptake of predictive testing and colorectal screening among first-degree relatives (FDRs) in LS families and explored novel methods for informing and engaging at-risk relatives. Uptake of predictive testing was explored using Kaplan-Meier analysis and engagement with colorectal screening was ascertained. A questionnaire was distributed to 216 general practitioners (GPs) of registered LS family members to determine their prior experience and opinion of an enhanced role. Of 591, 329 (55.7%) FDRs had undergone predictive testing. Uptake was significantly lower in males (p = 0.012) and individuals25 years (p0.001). Mutation carriers were more likely to undergo colorectal screening than untested FDRs (97.2% vs 34.9%; P ≤ 0.0001). Of 216, 63 (29.2%) questionnaires were returned. Most GPs (55/63; 87.3%) were not confident to discuss the details of LS with patients and relatives. The main barriers were lack of knowledge and concerns about confidentiality. Compliance with colorectal screening is excellent following a mutation positive predictive test. Uptake of predictive testing could be substantially improved, particularly among males and younger age groups. GPs are unlikely to actively participate in communication with at-risk relatives without considerable support.

Photo-induced electron transfer experiments examine intrinsically nonequilibrium processes. A theoretical description of photoinduced processes should take into account the fact that the approximations and assumptions made for equilibrium electron transfer need not be appropriate. Under nonequilibrium conditions, anharmonic distortions in the potential energy surfaces of nuclear motion coupled to the electron transfer may effect the dynamics. This work is a study of the effects of anharmonicity on photo-induced electron transfer reactions for condensed phase systems where one vibrational mode is strongly coupled to the electron transfer and a stochastic bath. For this vibrational mode, both harmonic and anharmonic potential energy surfaces for the excited states are considered and the electron transfer dynamics is monitored in a range of system–bath coupling regimes. The study focuses on two effects due to anharmonic distortions of the intramolecular modes: changes to the system Hamiltonian, and differenc...

The protocol of the national multicentre study of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) as a method of screening for breast cancer in women at genetic risk is described. The sensitivity and specificity of contrast-enhanced MRI will be compared with two-view X-ray mammography in a comparative trial. Approximately 500 women below the age of 50 at high genetic risk of breast cancer will be recruited per year for 3 years, with annual MRI and X-ray examination continuing for up to 5 years. A symptomatic cohort will be measured in the initial phase of the study to ensure consistent reporting between centres. The MRI examination will comprise an initial high-sensitivity screening measurement, followed by a high-specificity measurement in equivocal cases. Retrospective analysis will identify the most specific indicators of malignancy. Sensitivity and specificity, together with diagnostic performance, diagnostic impact and therapeutic impact will be assessed with reference to pathology, follow-up and changes in diagnostic certainty and therapeutic decisions. The psychological impact of screening in this high-risk group will be ascertained.