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Cavalier King Charles Spaniels (CKCS) are predisposed to developing myxomatous mitral valve disease (MMVD), with radiographs frequently used to screen for evidence of left-sided cardiomegaly secondary to MMVD. Vertebral heart size (VHS), vertebral left atrial size (VLAS), modified VLAS (M-VLAS), and radiographic left atrial dimension (RLAD) are reported as objective measurements of global heart size and left atrial size. Normal VHS in CKCS (10.6 ± 0.5) is reportedly higher than the non-breed-specific value (9.7±0.5). Breed-specific VLAS, M-VLAS, and RLAD cut-offs have not been reported in CKCS. The aim of this prospective reference interval study was to describe the VHS, VLAS, M-VLAS, and RLAD values for 30 clinically healthy adult CKCS. Inclusion criteria were unremarkable physical examination, normal echocardiography, and thoracic radiographs without malposition/abnormalities. There were 22 female and eight male dogs. Ages ranged from 1 to 6 years. The VHS mean value in our sample was 10.08 ± 0.56 (95% range, 9.87-10.29). This was significantly greater than a previously published general canine reference value of 9.7 ± 0.5 and significantly less than a previously published CKCS breed-specific value of 10.6 ± 0.5 (P < 0.01). Mean VLAS, M-VLAS, and the RLAD values in our study were 1.79 ± 0.3 (95% range, 1.68-1.9), 2.23 ± 0.44 (95% range, 2.06-2.39), and 1.2 ± 0.34 (95% range, 1.07-1.33), respectively. These were significantly less than previously published reference interval values (P < 0.001). The VHS, M-VLAS, and the RLAD were not affected by sex, body weight, or BCS; whereas the VLAS was moderately affected by body weight. Findings from this study can be used as background for future thoracic radiographic assessments in CKCS.

Objective To compare the peribulbar injectate distribution and probability of regional anaesthesia of four peribulbar anaesthetic techniques in equine cadavers. Study design Prospective experimental cadaver study. Animals A total of 12 isolated equine cadaver heads and 24 eyes. Methods The 24 orbits underwent one of four injection techniques (six orbits each) with a mixture (1:4) of contrast medium and saline (CM): 20 mL ventrolateral peribulbar injection (V-20), 20 mL dorsolateral peribulbar injection (D-20), combined ventrolateral and dorsolateral peribulbar injections 10 mL each (VD-20) or 20 mL each (VD-40). To evaluate and score CM distribution at the base of, within the extraocular muscle cone (EOMC), and around the optic nerve (before and after pressure application to the periorbital area), computed tomography was performed. To assess the probability of achieving locoregional anaesthesia, two criteria were applied and both scored as ‘likely’, ‘possible’ or ‘unlikely’. To compare CM distribution scores between injection techniques, Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance was used. Mann-Whitney U test was used for post hoc comparisons between groups when needed. A p value Results The CM distribution within the EOMC and around the optic nerve circumference was detected as ‘possible’ only after pressure application in seven out of 24 orbits (V-20, 3; D-20, 1; VD-40, 3). It was never considered ‘likely’ either before or after pressure application. The CM distribution at the EOMC base was considered ‘likely’ to provide regional anaesthesia in 50% (V-20), 0% (D-20), 33% (VD-20), 100% (VD-40) and in 66% (V-20), 16% (D-20), 50% (VD-20), 100% (VD-40) before and after applying pressure, respectively. Conclusions and clinical relevance Complete regional anaesthesia seems more likely using the VD-40 technique, although the authors advise caution due to the risk of potential complications. Future studies are necessary to evaluate the efficacy of the technique in vivo.

Rationale: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation is the cornerstone of cardiac arrest (CA) treatment. However, lung injuries associated with it have been reported. Objectives: To assess 1) the presence and characteristics of lung abnormalities induced by cardiopulmonary resuscitation and 2) the role of mechanical and manual chest compression (CC) in its development. Methods: This translational study included 1) a porcine model of CA and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (n = 12) and 2) a multicenter cohort of patients with out-of-hospital CA undergoing mechanical or manual CC (n = 52). Lung computed tomography performed after resuscitation was assessed qualitatively and quantitatively along with respiratory mechanics and gas exchanges. Measurements and Main Results: The lung weight in the mechanical CC group was higher compared with the manual CC group in the experimental (431 6 127 vs. 273 6 66, P = 0.022) and clinical study (1,208 6 630 vs. 837 6 306, P = 0.006). The mechanical CC group showed significantly lower oxygenation (P = 0.043) and respiratory system compliance (P, 0.001) compared with the manual CC group in the experimental study. The variation of right atrial pressure was significantly higher in the mechanical compared with the manual CC group (54 6 11 vs. 31 6 6 mm Hg, P = 0.001) and significantly correlated with lung weight (r = 0.686, P = 0.026) and respiratory system compliance (r = 20.634, P = 0.027). Incidence of abnormal lung density was higher in patients treated with mechanical compared with manual CC (37% vs. 8%, P = 0.018). Conclusions: This study demonstrated the presence of cardiopulmonary resuscitation–associated lung edema in animals and in patients with out-of-hospital CA, which is more pronounced after mechanical as opposed to manual CC and correlates with higher swings of right atrial pressure during CC.

The objectives of this retrospective, observer agreement study were to (a) test variability of radiographic left atrial dimension (RLAD) and vertebral left atrial size (VLAS) measurements among observers with different levels of expertise in thoracic radiology and cardiology, (b) assess whether one method is better than the other in detecting left atrial enlargement (LAE), and (c) assess the agreement among RLAD, VLAS, and American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine (ACVIM) classes. Seventy-four dogs (eight healthy and 66 with mitral valve disease) with thoracic radiographs and echocardiography performed on the same day were reviewed. Thirty showed echocardiographic LAE. Left atrial dimension was quantified using RLAD and VLAS by six different operators with three levels of clinical experience in veterinary cardiology/radiology. Vertebral heart score and fourth thoracic vertebra (T4) were also measured. Differences in T4, vertebral heart score (VHS), RLAD, and VLAS measurements were found among six operators and among the three levels of clinical expertise as well as between veterinary cardiology readers and veterinary radiology readers (P < .05). The area under the receiver operating characteristic (AUC) curve for VHS showed good performances for all observers and level and type of expertise; the AUC for RLAD and VLAS was suboptimal only for the radiology student. Our RLAD and VLAS cutoffs (1.9 and 2.43 v, respectively) were better related to qualitative radiographic than quantitative echocardiographic LAE evaluation. Radiographic LA dimension and VLAS showed an increase proportional to the worsening of the ACVIM class. In conclusion, these results allow us to affirm that RLAD and VLAS are reproducible measurements for detecting LAE. Better performances are associated with clinical expertise and background.

Objectives The purpose of this study was to analyse and compare morphometric measurements of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) in two groups of cats with brachycephalic and mesocephalic craniofacial skull conformations using multislice CT and cone beam CT. Methods CT records of 20 cats without TMJ pathology were included in the study, and were divided into two groups according to those with mesocephalic or brachycephalic skull conformation. Width and depth of the mandibular fossa, width and height of the head of the mandible, and two different angles were measured in 40 TMJs. Results TMJ conformation differed between groups: 3/6 parameters were statistically different. Brachycephalic cats had a significantly narrower mandibular fossa, a shorter head of the mandible and a wider angle of congruence (angle 2). Conclusions and relevance The results provide morphometric measurements that can serve as a reference tool for the veterinary radiologist and surgeon when TMJ evaluation is necessary. Moreover, the study identified significant differences between the two craniofacial skull conformations.

OBJECTIVE: To report the outcomes associated with sentinel lymph nodes (SLN) detection and extirpation guided by radionuclide and methylene blue injections in dogs with cutaneous and subcutaneous mast cell tumors (MCT). STUDY DESIGN: Clinical prospective cohort study. ANIMALS: Thirty client‐owned dogs with MCT amenable to wide‐margin excision, without evidence of distant metastasis and abnormal regional lymph nodes (RLN). METHODS: Technetium‐99 m and methylene blue were injected peritumorally. Dogs underwent preoperative γ‐camera scintigraphy and an intraoperative γ‐probe‐guided SLN extirpation. Outcomes included technical and surgical complications, number of SLN, SLN location respecting the expected RLN, and histopathology results. RESULTS: Sentinel lymph node mapping was applied to 34 MCT in 30 dogs without any complication. Sentinel lymph nodes were not identified in three of 34 tumors, all with previous scar tissue. Sentinel lymph nodes did not correspond to expected RLN in 19 of 30 (63%) tumors. Histological examination confirmed an early or overt metastasis in 32 of 57 (56%) SLN extirpated. CONCLUSION: Sentinel lymph node mapping and biopsy with radionuclide and injection of methylene blue was associated with low morbidity and allowed detection of SLN in dogs with MCT at first presentation without scar tissue. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Incorporation of SLN mapping and extirpation allows for a personalized staging approach in dogs with MCT. The presence of scar tissue in dogs with recurrent tumors seems to be a limitation for SLN mapping with this technique.

The recent literature supports the sentinel lymph node (SLN) biopsy in dogs with MCT due to discrepancy with the regional lymph node and the high percentage of occult metastasis. However, the SLN biopsy includes additional anesthesiologic, diagnostic, and surgical procedures, and additional costs. The study aimed to assess the association between clinicopathological variables and SLN status, determining the identification of dogs at lower risk of SLN metastases. Dogs with integumentary MCT were admitted to the lymphoscintigraphic mapping and subsequent biopsy of SLN. The association between clinicopathological variables of MCT and SLN status was statistically tested, both considering occult and overt metastasis together (HN2-HN3) and overt metastasis (HN3) alone. Fifty low-grade cutaneous MCT and 16 subcutaneous MCT were included. A small to moderate association between integumentary MCT ≥ 3 cm and HN2-HN3 SLN was found. A strong association of integumentary MCT dimension and subcutaneous MCT with HN3 SLN occurred. Dimension of low-grade cutaneous and subcutaneous MCT seems to correlate with SLN status, but additional study should confirm this data before excluding small MCT to the SLN biopsy. On the contrary, the study results induce a solid suggestion for mapping and biopsy of the SLN in MCT &gt, 3 cm and subcutaneous MCT.

Regenerative medicine has gained a strong interest in reptile practice, with transposition of techniques widely used in human and mammal medicine. Specifically, Platelet Rich Plasma (PRP) and derived products have shown to be safe and promising tools to improve soft and bone tissue healing in this class. Hereby we present two cases of oral cavity disorders treated with heterologous Thrombocyte-Leukocyte Rich Plasma (TLRP). In the first case, TLRP was used on one ball python (Python regius) with chronic facial cellulitis, to adjuvate post-surgical wound healing. In the second case, it was the elected therapy to treat one veiled chameleon (Chamaeleo calyptratus) with severe maxillary osteolysis secondary to chronic periodontal disease. Repeated CT scans were performed to evaluate healing progression. In both cases, single administration of TLRP was able to stop bone lysis progression, but was not enough to promote new bone formation. Our experience suggests that the use of thrombocyte-derived products, thanks to their regenerative and antimicrobial properties, could represent a useful tool to adjuvate traditional therapies in reptile reconstructive medicine.

There is an increased need and focus to understand how local brain microstructure affects the transport of drug molecules directly administered to the brain tissue, for example in convection-enhanced delivery procedures. This study reports the first systematic attempt to characterize the cytoarchitecture of commissural, long association and projection fibers, namely: the corpus callosum, the fornix and the corona radiata. Ovine samples from three different subjects were stained with osmium tetroxide (to enhance contrast from cell organelles and the fibers), embedded in resin and then imaged using scanning electron microscope combined with focused ion beam milling to generate 3D volume reconstructions of the tissue at subcellular spatial resolution. Particular focus has been given to the characteristic cytological feature of the white matter: the axons and their alignment in the tissue. Via 2D images a homogeneous myelination has been estimated via detection of ~40% content of lipids in all the different fiber tracts. Additionally, for each tract, a 3D reconstruction of relatively large volumes (15μm x 15μm x 15μm – including a significant number of axons) has been performed. Namely, outer axonal ellipticity, outer axonal cross-sectional area and their relative perimeter have been measured. The study of well-resolved microstructural features provides useful insight into the fibrous organization of the tissue, whose micromechanical behaviour is that of a composite material presenting elliptical tortuous tubular fibers embedded in the extra-cellular matrix. Drug flow can be captured through microstructurally-based models, leading to a workflow to enable physically-accurate simulations of drug delivery to the targeted tissue.

Tumour stage is a prognostic indicator for canine malignant head and neck tumours (MHNT). However, consensus is lacking on nodal staging in the absence of clinically apparent nodal disease (cN0 neck). This prospective observational study aims to determine the diagnostic accuracy of radiopharmaceutical and blue dye for sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB), to assess the correspondence between sentinel lymph node (SLN) and clinically expected regional lymph node (RLN) and the impact on staging of the procedure in dogs with MHNT and cN0 neck. Twenty-three dogs with MHNT and cN0 neck underwent tumour excision and SLNB guided by preoperative lymphoscintigraphy and intraoperative gamma-probe and blue dye. Diagnostic performances and detection rate were calculated. Correspondence between SLN and RLN, number of nodes excised, histopathological status of the SLN and complications related to the procedure were recorded. The mapping technique identified at least one SLN in 19/23 dogs, with a detection rate of 83%. The SLN did not correspond to the RLN in 52% of dogs. Multiple nodes were removed in 61% of dogs. At histopathology, eight (42%) dogs had SLN+, of which four differed from the RLN. Only minor self-limiting complications occurred in five (22%) dogs. Radiopharmaceutical and blue dye guidance is accurate (sensitivity 88.9%; specificity 100%) for SLNB in dogs with MHNT and cN0 and allowed the extirpation of unpredictable and/or multiple SLN with minimal morbidity. Incorporation of SLNB in the management of MHNT is desirable to correctly stage the cN0 neck, owing the unpredictability of the lymphatic drainage.

Sentinel lymph node (SLN) mapping is the current gold standard for the oncological staging of solid malignancies in humans. This prospective observational study describes the feasibility and the limits of preoperative lymphoscintigraphy for SLN detection in dogs with spontaneous malignancies and the improvements in staging accuracy. Client‐owned dogs with confirmed malignant neoplasia and absence of distant metastasis were prospectively enrolled. Lymphoscintigraphy was performed after the peritumoral injection of Technetium‐99m labeled nanocolloids. Regional dynamic and static images were acquired, with and without masking of the injection site with a lead shield. The dogs were then subjected to surgery for tumor excision and SLN extirpation. Intraoperative SLN detection was performed by combining methylene blue dye and a dedicated gamma probe. Overall, 51 dogs with a total of 60 solid malignant tumors were enrolled. Lymphoscintigraphy identified at least one SLN in 57 of 60 cases (95%). The SLN did not always correspond to the regional lymph node (35/57, 61.4%). The use of a lead shield, masking the injection site, markedly improved the SLN visibility. The median time of SLN appearance was 11.4 ± 9.3 min. No side effects were observed. Preoperative lymphoscintigraphy allows for SLN detection in dogs and can improve staging accuracy by either identifying the SLN in a different lymphosome than clinically expected or discriminating the draining node in uncertain cases. The combined use of preoperative and intraoperative techniques is recommended to increase the SLN detection rate.

Primary vasopressor efficacy of epinephrine during cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is due to its α-adrenergic effects. However, epinephrine plays β1-adrenergic actions, which increasing myocardial oxygen consumption may lead to refractory ventricular fibrillation (VF) and poor outcome. Effects of a single dose of esmolol in addition to epinephrine during CPR were investigated in a porcine model of VF with an underlying acute myocardial infarction. VF was ischemically induced in 16 pigs and left untreated for 12 min. During CPR, animals were randomized to receive epinephrine (30 µg/kg) with either esmolol (0.5 mg/kg) or saline (control). Pigs were then observed up to 96 h. Coronary perfusion pressure increased during CPR in the esmolol group compared to control (47 ± 21 vs. 24 ± 10 mmHg at min 5, p p p p

BACKGROUND The brain of sheep has primarily been used in neuroscience as an animal model because of its similarity to the human brain, in particular if compared to other models such as the lissencephalic rodent brain. Their brain size also makes sheep an ideal model for the development of neurosurgical techniques using conventional clinical CT/MRI scanners and stereotactic systems for neurosurgery. METHODS In this study, we present the design and validation of a new CT/MRI compatible head frame for the ovine model and software, with its assessment under two real clinical scenarios. RESULTS Ex-vivo and in vivo trial results report an average linear displacement of the ovine head frame during conventional surgical procedures of 0.81 mm for ex-vivo trials and 0.68 mm for in vivo tests, respectively. CONCLUSIONS These trial results demonstrate the robustness of the head frame system and its suitability to be employed within a real clinical setting.

Background Ventilation with the noble gas argon (Ar) has shown neuroprotective and cardioprotective properties in different in vitro and in vivo models. Hence, the neuroprotective effects of Ar were investigated in a severe, preclinically relevant porcine model of cardiac arrest. Methods and Results Cardiac arrest was ischemically induced in 36 pigs and left untreated for 12 minutes before starting cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Animals were randomized to 4‐hour post‐resuscitation ventilation with: 70% nitrogen–30% oxygen (control); 50% Ar–20% nitrogen–30% oxygen (Ar 50%); and 70% Ar–30% oxygen (Ar 70%). Hemodynamic parameters and myocardial function were monitored and serial blood samples taken. Pigs were observed up to 96 hours for survival and neurological recovery. Heart and brain were harvested for histopathology. Ten animals in each group were successfully resuscitated. Ninety‐six‐hour survival was 60%, 70%, and 90%, for the control, Ar 50%, and Ar 70% groups, respectively. In the Ar 50% and Ar 70% groups, 60% and 80%, respectively, achieved good neurological recovery, in contrast to only 30% in the control group ( P P P =0.007), after Ar compared with control treatment. A lower increase in circulating biomarkers of brain injury, together with less kynurenine pathway activation ( P P Conclusions Post‐resuscitation ventilation with Ar significantly improves neurologic recovery and ameliorates brain injury after cardiac arrest with long no‐flow duration. Benefits are greater after Ar 70% than Ar 50%.

Purpose Available animal models of acute heart failure (AHF) and their limitations are discussed herein. A novel and preclinically relevant porcine model of decompensated AHF (ADHF) is then presented. Methods Myocardial infarction (MI) was induced by occlusion of left anterior descending coronary artery in 17 male pigs (34 ± 4 kg). Two weeks later, ADHF was induced in the survived animals (n = 15) by occlusion of the circumflex coronary artery, associated with acute volume overload and increases in arterial blood pressure by vasoconstrictor infusion. After onset of ADHF, animals received 48-h iv infusion of either serelaxin (n = 9) or placebo (n = 6). The pathophysiology and progression of ADHF were described by combining evaluation of hemodynamics, echocardiography, bioimpedance, blood gasses, circulating biomarkers, and histology. Results During ADHF, animals showed reduced left ventricle (LV) ejection fraction 35%, pulmonary edema, and high pulmonary capillary wedge pressure ~ 30 mmHg (p 2 and high PCO2; and LV dysfunction, i.e., increased LV end-diastolic/systolic volumes, were observed (p p Conclusion This new model, resulting from a combination of chronic and acute MI, and volume and pressure overload, was able to reproduce all the typical clinical signs occurring during ADHF in a consistent and reproducible manner.

INTRODUCTION The study investigated the effect of untreated cardiac arrest (CA), that is, "no-flow" time, on postresuscitation myocardial and neurological injury, and survival in a pig model to identify an optimal duration that adequately reflects the most frequent clinical scenario. METHODS An established model of myocardial infarction followed by CA and cardiopulmonary resuscitation was used. Twenty-two pigs were subjected to three no-flow durations: short (8-10 min), intermediate (12-13 min), and long (14-15 min). Left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) was assessed together with thermodilution cardiac output (CO) and high sensitivity cardiac troponin T (hs-cTnT). Neurological impairment was evaluated by neurological scores, serum neuron specific enolase (NSE), and histopathology. RESULTS More than 60% of animals survived when the duration of CA was ≤13 min, compared to only 20% for a duration ≥14 min. Neuronal degeneration and neurological scores showed a trend toward a worse recovery for longer no-flow durations. No animals achieved a good neurological recovery for a no-flow ≥14 min, in comparison to a 56% for a duration ≤13 min (P = 0.043). Serum NSE levels significantly correlated with the no-flow duration (r = 0.892). Longer durations of CA were characterized by lower LVEF and CO compared to shorter durations (P

The palatine tonsil is an uncommon site of oral canine neoplasia. For affected tonsils, squamous cell carcinoma is the most frequent type of neoplasia, followed by melanoma and lymphoma. Computed tomography (CT) is increasingly used for investigation of canine oropharyngeal pathology; however, limited information is available on the CT appearance of tonsillar neoplasms. Objectives of this retrospective descriptive case series were to characterize the CT features of canine tonsillar neoplasia and determine whether specific CT features differentiate nonneoplastic from neoplastic tonsils. Computed tomographic studies of 14 dogs diagnosed with tonsillar neoplasia were retrieved from two referral hospitals and reviewed by two observers. Diagnosis was based on histology or cytology. Carcinoma was diagnosed in 11 dogs, melanoma in two and lymphoma in one dog. Specific CT features of the tonsil and regional lymph nodes did not differentiate neoplastic from nonneoplastic tonsillar diseases, but regional lymph node CT features were useful for diagnosis in some cases. Marked enlargement (width ≥ 18 mm, 12/18), heterogeneity (16/18), and loss of the hypoattenuating hilus (18/18) of the medial retropharyngeal lymph node were common concomitant features of tonsillar neoplasia. The medial retropharyngeal and mandibular lymphadenomegaly was ipsilateral to the neoplastic tonsil in 8/12 and 6/9 dogs, respectively. Five dogs demonstrated little or no enlargement of the tonsil despite the associated metastatic lymphadenomegaly. Tonsillar neoplasia should therefore be considered as a differential diagnosis for dogs with CT evidence of isolated medial retropharyngeal lymphadenomegaly (regardless of normally sized tonsils), or of any enlarged tonsil with no associated lymphadenomegaly.

Osteochondral defects are a common problem in both human medicine and veterinary practice although with important limits concerning the cartilaginous tissue regeneration. Interest in the subchondral bone has grown, as it is now considered a key element in the osteochondral defect healing. The aim of this work was to generate and to evaluate the architecture of three cell-free scaffolds made of collagen, magnesium/hydroxyapatite and collagen hydroxyapatite/wollastonite to be implanted in a sheep animal model. Scaffolds were designed in a bilayer configuration and a novel &ldquo, Honey&rdquo, configuration, where columns of hydroxyapatite were inserted within the collagen matrix. The use of different types of scaffolds allowed us to identify the best scaffold in terms of integration and tissue regeneration. The animals included were divided into four groups: three were treated using different types of scaffold while one was left untreated and represented the control group. Evaluations were made at 3 months through CT analysis. The novel &ldquo, configuration of the scaffold with hydroxyapatite seems to allow for a better reparative process, although we are still far from obtaining a complete restoration of the defect at this time point of follow-up.

Local recurrence (LR) is the major concern in the treatment of feline injection-site sarcoma (FISS). Pretreatment leukocyte counts and ratios have been reported as diagnostic and/or prognostic markers in human and canine oncology. The aim of this retrospective study was to explore the prognostic impact on LR and overall survival time (OST) of pretreatment neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), white blood cell count (WBCC), neutrophil count (NC) and lymphocyte count (LC) in cats with surgically excised FISS. Eighty-two cats with histologically confirmed FISS at first presentation, without distant metastases, and with available pretreatment haematological analyses were retrospectively enrolled. The correlation of NLR, WBCC, NC, LC with tumour variables and patient variables was explored. NLR was correlated with tumour size (P = .004), histological pattern of tumour growth (P = .024) and histotype (P = .029), while WBCC and NC were associated with ulceration (P = .007, P = .011) and pattern of growth (P = .028, P = .004). No significant relationships emerged between LC and any of the considered variables. The impact of NLR, WBCC, NC, LC on LR and OST was then estimated in univariate and multivariate analysis. In univariate analysis, NLR, WBCC and NC were significant prognostic factors for both LR and OST. NLR, WBCC and NC remained prognostic in multivariate analysis for LR but not for OST. When NLR, WBCC and NC were jointly analysed, WBCC was the marker with the greater impact on LR. Preoperative NLR, WBCC and NC may aid in identifying cats at higher risk of LR.

The use of contrast enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for the detection of orthopedic pathologies in equine patients is poorly described. In few studies, enhanced MRI allowed to differentiate active lesions from chronic ones and to classify ambiguous lesions. The aim of this clinical prospective pilot study is to describe and compare the MRI lesions observed in horses with lameness localized to the foot using a single intravenous bolus dose of gadolinium contrast versus regional intraarterial bolus of contrast agent. Ten horses that underwent contrast enhanced MRI were included in the study. Gadolinium was injected intravenously in 3 patients and in 7 horses contrast agent was administered by intraarterial regional delivery. Regions of interest (ROI) were collected from both pre- and post-contrast images and ratios between pre- and post-contrast ROIs were calculated. No adverse reactions were noted after contrast agent injection. Injured structures that revealed greater increase in signal in post-contrast images were the deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT), the navicular spongiosa and the peritendinous tissues. Regional intraarterial administration of gadolinium provided higher ratio of contrast enhancement. Enhanced MRI using both intravenous or intraarterial injection of gadolinium, increased the diagnostic capability of MRI in horses with foot lesions. Nevertheless, regional intraarterial administration of gadolinium was considered the best choice due to the higher signal and lower volumes of contrast agent required.Keywords: Contrast Agent, Equine, Lameness, MRI, Orthopedic

Background Mechanical chest compression (CC) is currently suggested to deliver sustained high‐quality CC in a moving ambulance. This study compared the hemodynamic support provided by a mechanical piston device or manual CC during ambulance transport in a porcine model of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Methods and Results In a simulated urban ambulance transport, 16 pigs in cardiac arrest were randomized to 18 minutes of mechanical CC with the LUCAS (n=8) or manual CC (n=8). ECG, arterial and right atrial pressure, together with end‐tidal CO 2 and transthoracic impedance curve were continuously recorded. Arterial lactate was assessed during cardiopulmonary resuscitation and after resuscitation. During the initial 3 minutes of cardiopulmonary resuscitation, the ambulance was stationary, while then proceeded along a predefined itinerary. When the ambulance was stationary, CC‐generated hemodynamics were equivalent in the 2 groups. However, during ambulance transport, arterial and coronary perfusion pressure, and end‐tidal CO 2 were significantly higher with mechanical CC compared with manual CC (coronary perfusion pressure: 43±4 versus 18±4 mmHg; end‐tidal CO 2 : 31±2 versus 19±2 mmHg, P P P Conclusions This model adds evidence in favor of the use of mechanical devices to provide ongoing high‐quality CC and tissue perfusion during ambulance transport.

Aim of the study: To evaluate in an established porcine post cardiac arrest model the effect of a mild hypercapnic ventilatory strategy on outcome. Methods: The left anterior descending coronary artery was occluded in 14 pigs and ventricular fibrillation induced and left untreated for 12 min. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation was performed for 5 min prior to defibrillation. After resuscitation, pigs were assigned to either normocapnic (end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2) target: 35-40 mmHg) or hypercapnic ventilation (EtCO2 45-50 mmHg). Hemodynamics was invasively measured and EtCO2 was monitored with an infrared capnometer. Blood gas analysis, serum neuron-specific enolase (NSE) and high sensitive cardiac troponin T (hs-cTnT) were assessed. Survival and functional recovery were evaluated up to 96 h. Results: Twelve pigs were successfully resuscitated and eight survived up to 96 h, with animals in the hypercapnic group showing trend towards a longer survival. EtCO2 and arterial partial pressure of CO2 were higher in the hypercapnic group compared to the normocapnic one (p

Case report An 8-year-old spayed female cross-breed dog was evaluated following a 2-month history of thoracic limb weakness. Neurological examination revealed a spinal cord lesion between C1 and C5 segments. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed that almost 70% of the spinal canal between C1 and C2 was occupied by an intradural extramedullary mass that was connected to a paraspinal mass from the cranial aspect of C2 to the cranial aspect of C3. The dog was anaesthetised and a dorsal, right-sided hemilaminectomy was performed. A durotomy was performed to expose a multilobular mass located principally along the right dorsal–lateral aspect of the spinal cord. The mass did not appear to infiltrate the cord parenchyma. The abnormal tissue was removed as completely as possible using gentle dissection and submitted for histological evaluation. The histological findings were consistent with an intradural–extramedullary haemangioblastoma with paraspinal extension. Following surgery, no neurological deterioration was detected. A metronomic-dosing chemotherapy protocol was administered to prevent progression or recurrence of the tumour. Follow-up MRI studies were performed 3, 6 and 12 months after the surgery, confirming complete tumour removal and the absence of recurrence. Conclusion Haemangioblastoma is an extremely rare neoplasm in animals and only two cases of this tumour have been reported, but in other anatomical locations. Haemangioblastomas in human patients are more commonly located in the cerebellum and intradural–extramedullary growth is extremely rare. The dog in this study responded favourably to combined surgery and metronomic chemotherapy and was clinically normal 1 year after surgery.

Summary Reasons for performing study There are few studies on the correlations between radiographic measurements of the foot and abnormalities of specific structures found with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Objectives To document the relationship between radiographic measurements of the equine foot and the presence of lesions in the foot on MRI. We hypothesised that different radiographic measurements would be associated with specific lesions detected by MRI. Study design Retrospective analysis of radiographs and MRI studies. Methods Seventy-four feet from 52 lame horses were included. Twenty parameters were measured on radiographs, whereas the signal intensity, homogeneity and size of each structure in the foot were evaluated on magnetic resonance images. The data were analysed using simple linear correlation analysis and classification and regression trees (CARTs). Results Linear correlations were found between the navicular bone compacta thickness and injuries of the deep digital flexor tendon, collateral sesamoidean ligament, navicular spongiosa and navicular bone proximal border. Long-toed horses had a high incidence of lesions involving the spongiosa and proximal border of the navicular bone. Elongation of the navicular bone was associated with proximal and distal border injuries. A reduced palmar angle and increased angle between the middle and distal phalanx were observed in horses with alterations of collateral ligaments of the distal interphalangeal joint and navicular bone spongiosa, respectively. For each structure under investigation, CARTs predicting the presence of MRI pathology based on radiographic measurements had excellent performance, with >80% correct classification of cases, when using one of 3 data sources. Conclusions This study demonstrated a relationship between radiographic measurements of the foot and the presence of lesions detected on MRI, while CARTs illustrated that different radiographic measurements were associated with different MRI lesions.

Background. Stenting has become the first-line treatment of obstructive venous disease because of poor results of balloon angioplasty. This preclinical study aimed to investigate the safety and efficacy profile of a novel compliant venous scaffold (CVS) denominated Petalo CVS, specifically designed for venous diseases. Materials and Methods. Twelve healthy pigs weighing 90 kg were used to test Petalo CVS. The devices were implanted into the internal jugular veins (IJVs) using a femoral vein percutaneous approach. The safety profile including the success rate of device releasing, anchoring, and positioning was evaluated immediately. Fracture, migration, primary patency, and endothelial response were assessed at 1, 2, 3, and 6 months after the study procedure. Results. A total of 32 devices were successfully released in both IJVs. No procedure- or device-related complications were reported, and all pigs successfully completed the different scheduled follow-up periods. The primary patency rate was 100%, and no fracture or migration of the device into the brachiocephalic trunk was reported. Histological examination revealed only minimal lesions with minimal or absent inflammatory reaction surrounding the incorporated metallic rods. Conclusions. This porcine model study showed a promising safety and efficacy profile of Petalo CVS, a novel endovenous device based on specific concepts.

An 11-year-old cat with a 4-month history of lethargy, inappetence, dysphagia, partial mandibular paralysis and weight loss, was euthanized due to the rapid deterioration of his condition. Post-mortem radiographic examination revealed severe bone lysis of the left zygomatic arch, temporal and parietal bones. Magnetic resonance imaging of the head showed a large isointense mass of the left side of the skull associated with extensive lysis of the parietal and temporal bones and destruction of the adjacent tympanic bulla. Gross and histological examinations revealed a pulmonary adenosquamous carcinoma of the left lung, with metastases to the spleen, liver, mesenteric lymph nodes, mesentery, diaphragm, abdominal aorta, left orbit and calvaria. No limb or digit metastases were detected.

A 17-month-old female doberman pinscher was referred for an abdominal mass and ascites. Exploratory laparotomy revealed the presence of a large neoplastic mass replacing the right ovary and associated with multiple mesovarian, mesometrial and peritoneal nodules. An ovariohysterectomy was performed. Grossly, the tumour was soft and multilocular with large areas of haemorrhage and necrosis. Microscopically, it was infiltrative and composed of round and polygonal cells arranged respectively in solid sheets or forming distorted tubular structures separated by thick fibrovascular septae. Tubules contained necrotic debris, proteinaceous fluid or small endoluminal papillary structures. Marked cellular atypia, multiple neoplastic emboli and high mitotic count were observed. Immunohistochemically, the round cells uniformly expressed placental alkaline phosphatase, while the polygonal cells arranged in tubules and papillae expressed cytokeratin (CK) AE1/AE3 and CK7. A final diagnosis of metastasizing ovarian embryonal carcinoma (EC), a primitive germ cell tumour characterized by rudimentary epithelial differentiation was made. Canine ovarian EC should be considered as a differential diagnosis for undifferentiated aggressive ovarian tumours in young dogs.

Objectives Feline injection-site sarcomas (FISSs) are soft tissue tumours typically characterised by an interscapular location and highly infiltrative behaviour. CT is considered the modality of choice for FISS staging and double positioning (dynamic approach) was reported to successfully detect the exact extent of infiltration into the muscles. The aim of the present study was to investigate the utility of the dynamic approach in feline patients referred for preoperative staging of interscapular FISS. Methods Tumour volume estimates were compared between the ellipsoid and the semi-automated segmentation methods. Two radiologists blinded to the patient coding used images from each position to assess the extent of muscular infiltration. The distance between the neoplasm and the adjacent skeletal structures (scapulae, spinous processes) was recorded in both positions by a single radiologist. Results Fifty-nine of 84 neoplasms invaded the adjacent muscular structures, with up to 15 muscles infiltrated. Between the extended and flexed position the average estimated numbers of muscles infiltrated were 1.9 (extended) and 1.84 (flexed) for observer A and 1.89 (extended) and 1.85 (flexed) for observer B. Good agreement between observers was established, with higher tumour volumes detected via the ellipsoid method. Moreover, tumours with smaller volumes showed slightly decreased muscular infiltration. Marked difference in the recorded distance between the skeletal structures and the neoplasm in the two different positions was established (mean ± SD difference spinous processes: 9.74 ± 9.57 mm; mean ± SD difference scapulae: 15.15 ± 11.76 mm). Conclusions and relevance A dynamic approach should be used for a complete evaluation of the invasiveness of FISS along with appropriate methodology for tumour volume measurement, which could potentially alter the tomographic estimation of the real dimension of the neoplasms.

Background Paranasal sinus cysts (PSC) are a common cause of equine secondary sinusitis. The outcome and associated complications have not been frequently reported. Objectives To review the associated clinical signs, associated morbidities and outcomes of horses treated for PSC. Study design Retrospective multicentre case series. Methods Retrospective analysis of case records and telephone follow up survey. Results Subjects were 37 horses 1-24 years old that were presented with nasal discharge (n = 31), facial swelling (n = 25) and epiphora (n = 19). Radiography and computed tomography allowed identification of the cyst-induced changes including concomitant tissue destruction (n = 31), leading among other things to local nerve damage causing headshaking (n = 6) and unilateral blindness (n = 1). Radiographic changes to adjacent dental apices were present in 10 horses. Horses over 10 years old showed more of the named associated problems. Post-operative complications included surgical site infection (SSI) (n = 11), nasofrontal suture periostitis (n = 6) and sequestration (n = 1) following removal of the PSC via osteotomy. The long-term response to treatment was available for 28 cases with 22 horses (78.6%) fully cured, 4 (14.3%) partially cured and 2 (7.1%) not responding to treatment. In 7 horses (18.9%) there was recurrence of the cyst post-operatively. Main limitations Due to the study being a multicentre retrospective case series with collection of data over an extended period, there may be inconsistency in data recording and absence of reporting of some findings. Conclusions Overall, the diagnosis and treatment of sinus cysts is relatively straightforward and carries a good prognosis. In long-standing cases complications secondary to the expansive growth of cysts will dramatically affect the prognosis for full recovery due to pressure-induced changes to facial bones, cheek teeth and nerves. These secondary complications mainly occurring in older horses may be due to a combination of a relatively longer period of affection and the inflexibility of older horses' bones. Cyst recurrence following treatment can occur in up to 19% of cases.

Tramadol is a synthetic codeine analogue used as an analgesic in human and veterinary medicine. It is not approved for use in horses, but could represent a valid tool for pain treatment in this species.The serum pharmacokinetic profile and urinary excretion of tramadol and its metabolites (O-desmethyltramadol [M1], N-desmethyltramadol [M2] and N,O-desmethyltramadol [M5]) was investigated in a multidrug anaesthetic and analgesic approach for orchiectomy in horses. The evaluation of the degree of cardiovascular stability, the intraoperative effect and postoperative analgesia obtained by the visual analogue scale are also reported. Animal and methods: Tramadol (4 mg/kg BW) was administered intravenously to eight male yearlings as a bolus over 60 seconds, 5 min after intubation and 15 min prior to surgery. Drug quantification was performed in serum and urine for tramadol, M1, M2 and M5 by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorimetric detection.Mean tramadol concentration was 14.87 ± 11.14 μg/mL at 0.08 h, and 0.05 ± 0.06 μg/mL at 10 h. Serum concentrations of M1 and M2 metabolites were quite limited. For M1 and M2, median maximum concentration (Cmax) and time to achieve maximum concentration (Tmax) were 0.05 μg/mL and 0.75 h, and 0.08 μg/mL and 2 h, respectively; M5 was never detected. In urine, tramadol was the most recovered compound, followed by M1, M2 and M5.Showing no adverse events and based on the kinetic behaviour, pre-operative tramadol IV at a dose of 4 mg/kg BW might be useful and safe as analgesic in horses undergoing surgery.

A case of pulmonary carcinoma in a 23-year-old Quarterhorse mare is described. On physical examination, depression, poor body condition, tachypnea, bilateral serosanguineous nasal discharge and a wide area of reduced breath sounds in association with the right hemithorax were detected. Laboratory evaluation showed leukocytosis with neutrophilia and lymphopenia, hyperfibrinogenemia, hyperprotidemia, hypoalbuminemia, increased beta 2 and gamma globulin fractions, hypoxemia, and normocapnia. Radiography and thoracic ultrasonography revealed a large rounded mass extending from the 9th to the 14th right intercostal space, where neither bronchial nor vascular structures were detectable. Endoscopy showed a large amount of serosanguineous fluid within the tracheal lumen and a mass of reddish soft tissue completely obliterating the right caudal lobar bronchus. Histopathology of the endobronchial mass and of the transthoracic ultrasound-guided biopsy samples was consistent with a primary pulmonary epithelial tumor. Due to worsening of the clinical condition, the mare was euthanized. Postmortem examination confirmed the presence of a large 30-cm mass located in the right caudal pulmonary lobe, characterized by epithelial cells arranged in papillary projections and alveolar structures, findings consistent with bronchioloalveolar carcinoma.

Congenital anomalies in horses are very rare, and contracted foal syndrome is one of the most commonly reported. This malformation is characterized by contraction of the joints of the forelimbs and/or hindlimbs. In addition, the syndrome can be characterized by vertebral column malformations, such as scoliosis or torticollis, and cranial deformity. The present report describes the radiological and necroscopical findings of multiple rare malformations in two foals. Both foals showed skeletal abnormalities and fenestration of the abdominal cavity. Other pathological findings include a interventricular septal defect in one and a unilateral hydronephrosis and partial hydroureter in the other foal. Although in this report a specific aetiology could not be provided, insecticides treatment provided during the second month of pregnancy might play a role in the pathogenesis of these malformations.

Summary Two foals were admitted for neurological signs after trauma. Clinical and diagnostic investigations were performed that were suggestive of closed head trauma characterised by right parietal bone deviation (ping-pong fracture), cerebral contusion, haematoma and cerebellar contusion. The histopathological findings were consistent with areas of abnormal signal found on magnetic resonance investigations.

Background: The aim of the work is the application of a bolus tracking technique for tomographic evaluation of the uretero-vesicular junction in dogs. Ten adult dogs (8–14 years) with variable body weight (2,8–32 kg) were enrolled in the prospective study. The patients were placed in sternal recumbency with a 10° elevated pelvis and the visualization of the uretero-vesicular junction was obtained with the bolus tracking technique after intravenous administration of non-ionic contrast medium. In the post-contrast late phase a region of interest was placed within the lumen of the distal ureters and the density values were monitored before starting the helical scan.Results: The uretero-vesicular junction was clearly visible in 100 % of patients with the visualization of the endoluminal ureteral contrast enhancement and bladder washout. At the end of the tomographic study an evaluation of the doserecords was performed and compared to human exposures reported in literature for the pelvic region. The effective dose estimated for each patient (37,5–138 mSv) proved to be elevated, when compared to those reported in human patients.Conclusion: The bolus tracking technique could be applied for the visualization of the uretero-vesicular junction in non-pathological patients, placing the region of interest in the distal ureters. The high effective doses recorded in our study support the need of specific thresholds for veterinary patients, pointing out the attention for paediatric patient’s exposure also in veterinary imaging.

Summary A common feature of colic in horses is tympany in the large intestine and medical treatment of this condition can be unsuccessful. In this article we describe and evaluate a new approach for decompression of large intestinal tympany in equine colic patients using transrectal puncture. We evaluated horses showing colic symptoms and colonic or caecal tympany and the final diagnosis, complications and final outcome were recorded for each horse. A special transrectal decompression device (TDD) was developed and used to perform transrectal decompression (TD) by gas aspiration. In order to assess pain reduction as a result of TD, heart rate (HR) was recorded before and after the decompression procedure. Twenty-five horses were included in the study. In 17 cases, tympany was recognised as primary in origin while in 8 it was secondary to other conditions. A total of 33 TDs were performed and no horses developed short- or long-term complications. All horses were alive after the first month post TD, while 5 died from diseases not related to TD. The TD could safely and easily be performed in all horses presenting tympany. Transrectal decompression can easily be performed, 2 or even 3 times to treat a single colic episode by using the transrectal device connected to a surgical aspirator. It was not possible from available information to relate the timing of HR decrease to resolution of colic or to administration of drugs because a retrospective study and all such data were not readily accessible. Our clinical results support the relevance of the TD as an elective treatment of primary large intestinal tympany, emergency treatment of tympany secondary to other surgical entities and as palliative treatment in surgical patients, in which surgery could not be achieved.

Summary Three horses with sudden onset severe lameness were admitted for further diagnostic investigation. All horses had variable changes on radiographs in the distal tarsal region. Because of the sudden onset and severe degree of lameness, a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) examination was performed. All horses showed areas of increased signal intensity in short tau inversion recovery (STIR) images involving the central and/or third tarsal bones. These lesions involved both the subchondral bone and bone marrow and are currently defined as bone marrow lesions (BML). Two horses were treated with shockwave therapy, one received intra-articular medication. Two of the horses returned to previous athletic level and one is still in rehabilitation.

Summary An Italian Saddle Horse mare was admitted for a hard, nonpainful mass localised in the cervical region. Clinical and diagnostic investigations were performed, which were suggestive of a multilobulated ossifying mass of neoplastic origin. Due to poor prognosis the horse was subjected to euthanasia. Post mortem computed tomography, anatomopathological examination and immunohistochemistry were used to make a definitive diagnosis of undifferentiated sarcoma in the cervical region.

The features of a calf with a split cord malformation are described. Clinically, there was severe cervicothoracic kyphoscoliosis and an interscapular dermal sinus associated with cerebrospinal fluid drainage. Using magnetic resonance imaging, complete duplication of the spinal cord at the cervical intumescence was detected. There was associated syringohydromyelia, multiple cervicothoracic vertebral malformations resulting in kyphoscoliosis and rachischisis, herniation of the cerebellar vermis, meningoencephalocele, and calvarial defects.

Summary Total, full thickness hoof wall avulsion is rare in horses. Sometimes complications such as fracture of the distal phalanx, osteomyelitis, septic arthritis and degenerative joint disease have been reported. Limiting motion at the affected site and hoof stabilisation are essential to obtain a good hoof regeneration. This case report reviews the clinical features including diagnostic techniques (radiographic examination and venography) of a Quarter Horse filly presented with a complete and full-thickness traumatic hoof capsule avulsion complicated by an open fracture of the third phalanx. A transfixation casting technique was performed followed after one month by 2 short limb casts applied for 2 months each. Twenty-four months after trauma the foot had completely regrown. The dorsal aspect of the hoof wall appears to be remarkably shorter compared to the heels. From a radiographic viewpoint, the lateral aspect of the left hind foot shows diffuse bone remodelling and a deformed distal phalanx.

INTRODUCTION: Effects of postresuscitation treatment with argon on neurologic recovery were investigated in a porcine model of cardiac arrest (CA) with an underlying acute myocardial infarction. METHODS: The left anterior descending coronary artery was occluded in 12 pigs, and CA was induced. After 8 min of untreated CA, cardiopulmonary resuscitation was performed for 5 min before defibrillation. Following resuscitation, animals were subjected to 4-h ventilation with 70% argon/30% oxygen or 70% nitrogen/30% oxygen. Myocardial function was echocardiographically assessed, and serum neuron-specific enolase was measured. Animals were observed up to 72 h for assessment of survival and neurologic recovery. RESULTS: All the animals were resuscitated and survived for 72 h, except for a control pig. Ventilation with argon did not have any detrimental effects on hemodynamics and respiratory gas exchange. All the six argon-treated animals had a fast and complete 72-h neurologic recovery, in contrast to only two of the six controls (P < 0.05). Seventy-two-hour neurologic alertness score and neurologic deficit score were, respectively, 100 and 0 in the argon group and 79 and 29 in the control one (P < 0.01 and P < 0.05). Significantly lower increases in serum neuron-specific enolase (12% vs. 234%) and minimal histological brain injury (neuronal degeneration: 0 vs. 1) were also observed in argon-treated animals, in comparison to controls. CONCLUSIONS: In this model, postresuscitation treatment with argon allowed for a faster and complete neurologic recovery, without detrimental effects on hemodynamics and respiratory gas exchanges.

There are few studies on the correlations between radiographic measurements of the foot and abnormalities of specific structures found with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).To document the relationship between radiographic measurements of the equine foot and the presence of lesions in the foot on MRI. We hypothesised that different radiographic measurements would be associated with specific lesions detected by MRI.Retrospective analysis of radiographs and MRI studies.Seventy-four feet from 52 lame horses were included. Twenty parameters were measured on radiographs, whereas the signal intensity, homogeneity and size of each structure in the foot were evaluated on magnetic resonance images. The data were analysed using simple linear correlation analysis and classification and regression trees (CARTs).Linear correlations were found between the navicular bone compacta thickness and injuries of the deep digital flexor tendon, collateral sesamoidean ligament, navicular spongiosa and navicular bone proximal border. Long-toed horses had a high incidence of lesions involving the spongiosa and proximal border of the navicular bone. Elongation of the navicular bone was associated with proximal and distal border injuries. A reduced palmar angle and increased angle between the middle and distal phalanx were observed in horses with alterations of collateral ligaments of the distal interphalangeal joint and navicular bone spongiosa, respectively. For each structure under investigation, CARTs predicting the presence of MRI pathology based on radiographic measurements had excellent performance, with80% correct classification of cases, when using one of 3 data sources.This study demonstrated a relationship between radiographic measurements of the foot and the presence of lesions detected on MRI, while CARTs illustrated that different radiographic measurements were associated with different MRI lesions.

An 8-day-old female Holstein Friesian calf was examined because of congenital spastic paresis of the hind limbs. Myelography revealed deviation and thinning of subarachnoid contrast medium columns in the lumbar segment. Upon magnetic resonance imaging, the 'hour-glass' subdural compression appeared as a T1-hypointense, T2-hyperintense ovoidal area suggestive of cerebral spinal fluid collection, compatible with hydrosyringomyelia. The calf was euthanized and the necropsy confirmed the diagnosis of segmental spinal cord hypoplasia of the lumbar tract associated to hydromyelic and syringomyelic cavities.

Tenoscopy of the navicular bursa has been recently introduced as a diagnostic and therapeutic treatment in cases of palmar foot pain syndrome. A deep digital flexor tendon transthecal approach was suggested in 1999, and the endoscopic technique has been reviewed. Smith and coworkers have recently reported good and promising results. An anatomic cadaver limb study was performed, and the endoscopic technique was evaluated. Subsequently, a 14-year-old Argentine mare, affected by palmar foot pain syndrome, was treated. Clinical data, MRI and endoscopic findings, and a 6-month follow-up evaluation are reported.

Use of magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of bone marrow edema in the equine distal limb: six cases D. D. Zani & D. De Zani & M. Biggi & M. Scandella & O. Travetti & M. Di Giancamillo Published online: 4 July 2009 # Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2009