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Among the biotic constraints of common mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) production, bacterial blotch is considered the most important mushroom disease in terms of global prevalence and economic impact. Etiology and management of bacterial blotch has been a major concern since its original description in 1915. Although Pseudomonas tolaasii is thought to be the main causal agent, various Pseudomonas species, as well as organisms from other genera have been reported to cause blotch symptoms on mushroom caps. In this review, we provide an updated overview on the etiology, epidemiology, and management strategies of bacterial blotch disease. First, diversity of the causal agent(s) and utility of high throughput sequencing-based approaches in the precise characterization and identification of blotch pathogen(s) is explained. Further, due to the limited options for use of conventional pesticides in mushroom farms against blotch pathogen(s), we highlight the role of balanced threshold of relative humidity and temperature in mushroom farms to combat the disease in organic and conventional production. Additionally, we discuss the possibility of the use of biological control agents (either antagonistic mushroom-associated bacterial strains or bacteriophages) for blotch management as one of the sustainable approaches for 21stcentury agriculture. Finally, we aim to elucidate the association of mushroom microbiome in cap development and productivity on one hand, and blotch incidence/outbreaks on the other hand.

Button mushrooms of Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Imbach are commercially cultivated under environmentally controlled conditions. In California they are the most economically important agricultural crop in Santa Clara and San Mateo counties, and also an important crop in 10 other counties. Trichoderma harzianum Rifai, biotype Th4, can reduce production by preventing formation of fruiting bodies. Biotype Th4 was previously detected and described in Canada (2), Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Unofficial reports suggest its presence in San Mateo County since 1995. Disease incidence and severity on the mushroom farms varied; some mushrooms became severely infected. Green epigeous mycelia and conidia were present on the casing layer resulting in empty patches. On some farms 30% of the production surface was infected during the peak of the epidemic. Initial identification of the species was made by isolating the fungus from the substrate and casing layer. Potato dextrose agar (PDA) cultures coincided with the cultural description of T. harzianum (1,3). Biotype assessments with standard procedures were conducted at Penn State, with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of total genomic DNA to screen the California isolates of T. harzianum. Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)-PCR analysis with 14 different primers indicated that they were the same RAPD haplotype as biotype Th4. The Horticultural Research Institute of Ontario relies on morphological observations from cultures grown on 2% MEA (malt extra agar) at 24°C under diffuse daylight to identify biotypes of T. harzianum (2), and microscopic characters of biotype Th4 were also positively confirmed on the California isolates. More than a parasite or pathogen, T. harzianum biotype Th4 is considered a weed mold of mushroom cultivation. The precise interaction is yet unknown. Modified Koch's postulates were confirmed with bags of commercial mushroom substrate (45 kg) inoculated by spraying 100 ml of a spore suspension (3.0 × 106 spores per ml) at filling, to give final concentrations of 103 to 108 spores per kg of compost. Treatments were T. harzianum biotype Th4, strain Th1, an unidentified isolate, control (distilled water only), and noninoculated. Eight replications per treatment were laid out in a randomized block design. Bags were subjected to standard mushroom cultivation practices. Biotype Th4 was reisolated from empty patches on the casing of all Th4 repetitions. Mean percent cover of the mold (therefore mushroom empty patches) was 30% for crops (flushes) 1 and 2, but individual bags varied from 15 to 90%. The mean percent cover in the other two treatments and in the controls was 0% for crops 1 to 4, therefore significantly different. Green mold was covering the total surface on all Th4 repetitions at third crop. No yields were recorded, but serious losses were obvious for the Th4 treatments. Green mold was not observed in the controls. References: (1) H. M. Grogan et al. Mushroom News 45:29, 1997. (2) D. L. Rinker et al. Mushroom World 8:71, 1997. (3) D. A. Seaby. Plant Pathol. 45:905, 1996.

Commercially available strains of hybrid white, hybrid off-white, and brown Agaricus bisporus mushrooms were compared for resistance to green mold caused by Trichoderma harzianum biotype 4 (Th4). Seven mushroom spawn strains were assessed for total weight of mushrooms (grams per 0.1 m2) with or without the addition of an aqueous Th4 spore suspension added at spawning time. Cropping studies were conducted at the Mushroom Research Center (Pennsylvania State University) to emulate commercial growing operations. Excessive spawn handling had no significant effect on development of green mold. Severity of green mold was related to time between infestation and green mold appearance, with more significant yield losses occurring when green sporulation was detected early in production. Significant differences in yield were measured among mushroom strains in response to Th4 infestation. Hybrid white strains were extremely susceptible, with a mean yield loss of 96%. Hybrid off-white strains exhibited intermediate susceptibility, with mean yield losses of 56 to 73%. Brown strains were highly resistant, with mean yield losses of 9 to 16%. From these findings, we report the existence of green mold resistance, with a continuum of resistance among spawn strains. The findings suggest use of brown strains to manage green mold outbreaks, particularly where benomyl resistance in Trichoderma spp. is a threat.

The late Permian is a transformative time, which ended in one of the most significant extinction events in Earth’s history. Fish assemblages are a major component of marine foods webs. The macroevolution and biogeographic patterns of late Permian fish are currently insufficiently known. In this contribution, the late Permian fish fauna from Kūmas quarry (southern Latvia) is described for the first time. As a result, the studied late Permian Latvian assemblage consisted of isolated chondrichthyan teeth ofHelodussp., ?Acrodussp., ?Omanoselachesp. and euselachian type dermal denticles as well as many osteichthyan scales of the Haplolepidae and Elonichthydae; numerous teeth ofPalaeoniscus, rare teeth findings of ?Platysomussp. and many indeterminate microremains. This ichthyofaunal assemblage is very similar to the contemporaneous Lopingian complex of the carbonate formation from the Karpėnai quarry (northern Lithuania), despite the fact that Kūmas samples include higher diversity and abundance in fossil remains. The differences in abundance of microremains could possibly be explained by a fresh water influx in the northeastern Zechstein Basin margin, which probably reduced the salinity of the sea water. The new data enable a better understanding of the poorly known late Permian fish diversity from the Lithuania-Latvia Region.

Herbivores can be major drivers of environmental change, altering plant community structure and changing biodiversity through the amount and species of plants consumed. If natural predators can reduce herbivore numbers and/or alter herbivore foraging behavior, then predators may reduce herbivory on sensitive plants, and a trophic cascade will emerge. We have investigated whether gray wolves (Canis lupus) generate such trophic cascades by reducing white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) herbivory on saplings and rare forbs in a northern mesic forest (Land O' Lakes, WI). Our investigation used an experimental system of deer exclosures in areas of high and low wolf use that allowed us to examine the role that wolf predation may play in reducing deer herbivory through direct reduction in deer numbers or indirectly through changing deer behavior. We found that in areas of high wolf use, deer were 62 % less dense, visit duration was reduced by 82 %, and percentage of time spent foraging was reduced by 43 %; in addition, the proportion of saplings browsed was nearly sevenfold less. Average maple (Acer spp.) sapling height and forb species richness increased 137 and 117 % in areas of high versus low wolf use, respectively. The results of the exclosure experiments revealed that the negative impacts of deer on sapling growth and forb species richness became negligible in high wolf use areas. We conclude that wolves are likely generating trophic cascades which benefit maples and rare forbs through trait-mediated effects on deer herbivory, not through direct predation kills.

Background Source-separated food waste is increasingly being treated by means of hygienisation followed by anaerobic digestion. The fibrous digester residue (digestate) is a potential mushroom substrate, while heat from the biogas can provide steam for the cultivation process. Using bag experiments the present study explored digestate as a full substitute for chicken manure conventionally used in mushroom composts. Results After mixing, a rapid temperature development in the compost was stimulated by a small amount of chicken manure, as aerobic microbial seeding. Mechanical elimination of lumps was essential for full mycelial colonisation. Three straw digestate composts had Agaricus bisporus mushroom yields above 370 g kg−1 substrate. The optimal compost water content was 600 g kg−1 at inoculation, and high digestate content (up to 500 g kg−1 by dry weight) did not affect yield for this species. High yields of A. subrufescens (200 g kg−1) were related to drier composts of lower digestate content (more straw) and lower pH values at inoculation. Conclusion Digestate successfully substituted chicken manure in straw composts without affecting mushroom yields for both species. There were no clear differences between straw digestate and control composts in terms of mushroom dry matter, size, nitrogen or ash content. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry

The radical surgery of the deep infiltrating endometriosis of the rectovaginal septum and the uterosacral ligaments with or without bowel resection can cause a serious damage of the pelvic autonomic nerves with urinary retention and the need of self-catheterization. Major goal of this review article is to compare different surgical techniques of deep infiltrating endometriosis and their follow-up results.The research strategy included the online search of databases [MEDLINE, EMBASE, SCOPUS] for the diagnosis of deep infiltrating endometriosis with the indication of an operative resection. The outcome of the follow-up terms were noticed and compared.All in all, 16 trials could be identified with included follow-up. In all patients at least single-sided resection of the uterosacral ligaments were performed. Follow-up was heterogeneous in all trials ranging from 1 to 92 months. Postoperative symptoms, such as dysmenorrhoea, pelvic pain, and dyspareunia were commonly described in the majority of trials. Nevertheless, a tendency towards lower comorbidity after nerve sparing resection of endometriosis could be observed.Identification of the inferior hypogastric nerve and plexus was feasible in the minority of trials. In comparison with non-nerve-sparing surgical technique, no cases of bladder self-catheterization for a long or even life time was observed, confirming the importance of the nerve-sparing surgical procedure.

Fresh mushroom compost is a byproduct of the edible mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) industry and represents the composted growing substrate that remains after a crop has been harvested to completion. Thirty samples were obtained from commercial mushroom farms in southeastern Pennsylvania and sent to a laboratory for analysis to determine plant nutrient content, bulk density, and particle size distribution of fresh mushroom compost. Fresh mushroom compost had an average pH of 6.6, with an average carbon:nitrogen ratio of 13:1. Organic matter content averaged 25.86% (wet weight), 146.73 lb/yard3 (wet volume) or 60.97% (dry weight). For the primary macronutrients, average total nitrogen content averaged 1.12% (wet weight), 6.40 lb/yard3 (wet volume) or 2.65% (dry weight), phosphorus measured 0.29% (wet weight), 1.67 lb/yard3 (wet volume) or 0.69% (dry weight), and potassium was 1.04% (wet weight), 5.89 lb/yard3 (wet volume) or 2.44% (dry weight). Average soluble salt content was 13.30 mmho/cm (wet weight basis). However, on a per acre basis, the calculated sodium absorption ratio of 0.38 was considered very low. The average bulk density of fresh mushroom compost was 574.73 lb/yard3 (wet volume basis), and 91% of the material measured ≤3/8 inch in diameter as determined on a wet weight basis. Overall, fresh mushroom compost is suitable as a natural organic fertilizer and soil amendment for agriculture and horticulture.

An electronic nose was used in conjunction with a human panel and artificial neural networks to predict human assessments on a hedonic (pleasantness) scale of various odors, including fragrances, spent and phase I mushroom substrate odors. After calculating the average rating from the human panel for each odor sample, the hedonic rating was matched with the 32 electronic nose sensor readings from the corresponding sample. The data were then used to develop and train artificial neural networks. Several neural networks were developed and tested by comparing predicted hedonic tone from the neural networks with the average hedonic tone assessed by the human panel. The general regression neural network using 11 e-nose sensors as input gave the best test set results, yielding an r2 value of 0.92, and a root mean error of 0.06 hedonic tone units. The genetic strategy neural network gave the best validation results, with an r2 value of 0.67 and a root mean error of 1.11 pleasantness units. These results provide evidence that an electronic nose could potentially be used to assess the quality of odors in a similar manner to a human panel.

Previous experiments have demonstrated that significant increases in yield of Agaricus bisporus mushrooms were achieved by adding a micronutrient rich fertilizer, Micromax, to the compost. This study was performed to determine the mineral(s) that are responsible for this yield improvement. An initial experiment determined that manganese was the mineral of primary importance; addition of 184 mg kg-1 Mn increased yield by 10.8%, compared to the control. Subsequent experiments demonstrated that the addition of manganese to the compost has a stimulatory effect on mushroom yields. Significant yield increases, ranging from 9.6% to 11.8% (compared to the control), were observed as a result of manganese additions varying between 50 and 300 mg kg-1. Also, data from the last set of experiments indicated that Micromax additions always resulted in greater yields indicating that micronutrients in Micromax, in addition to manganese, may be responsible for increasing yields.

The purpose of this research was to evaluate the effects of forced aeration during Phase I mushroom substrate preparation on substrate temperature, oxygen concentration, and heat generation. The work is described in two parts: (1) model development and thermal property determination, and (2) air temperature, oxygen, and airflow measurements and heat generation calculations using the model. This article represents part 1. To determine the rate of heat generation during substrate preparation, an energy balance model was developed for an environmentally controlled Phase I system. Thermal properties of mushroom substrate in the Phase I process were measured. Thermal conductivity ranged from 0.19 to 0.49 W/m-K. Thermal diffusivity ranged from 0.20 to 0.31 × 10-6 m2/s. Using an average bulk density of 275 kg/m3, the specific heat of Phase I mushroom substrate was calculated to be 5.23 kJ/kg-K.

A study was conducted to demonstrate the effects of three air distribution layouts on the uniformity of temperature and humidity within Agaricus bisporus mushroom production rooms. Carbon dioxide levels were also monitored. A. bisporus mushrooms were grown in commercial-design production rooms at the Mushroom Test Demonstration Facility at the Pennsylvania State University. Three different crops were studied under three different air distribution schemes that provided a mixture of fresh and re-circulated air at an exchange rate of 6 to 9 air changes per hour. Temperature and relative humidity were measured over seven mushroom growing trays every 30 min. For the central overhead duct and drop-tube duct arrangements, the bottom production trays tended to experience the coolest, driest air conditions in the room, and the air over the middle production trays was generally warmer with higher moisture levels. The central overhead duct system, combined with two sidewall-floor ducts, produced the most spatially uniform environmental conditions of all three distribution layouts studied. Carbon dioxide levels generally remained below the 3000-ppm maximum target during the study period in all three production rooms. Improved uniformity did not correlate with an improvement in quality or increase in yield. Mushrooms grown under air temperatures less than 13°C and at absolute humidities below 10 g m-3 had the poorest quality.

This article is the second of a two-part series on evaluating the effects of forced aeration during Phase I mushroom substrate preparation on substrate temperature, oxygen concentration, and heat generation. Part 2 describes testing of four different aeration schemes: 1, 3, 5, and 10 min of aeration per hour at a flow rate of 0.47 m3/s and a pressure of 6200 Pa. To estimate the rate of heat generation during substrate preparation, an energy balance model was developed and applied to an environmentally controlled Phase I system. This model development is presented in part 1 of this series. Results showed that oxygen demand during Phase I was time dependent, with demand being greatest at the onset of processing and immediately after the substrate was mixed. Results also indicated that heat generation and oxygen demand were greatest at temperatures between 45°C and 60°C and that, during these periods of vigorous activity, at least 61.3 m3/tonne/hour of air should be delivered to the substrate in order to maintain aerobic conditions. At temperatures above 80°C, heat generation was minimal and the demand for oxygen was very low.

A model was developed to predict mushroom substrate temperature during the phase I preparation process. Many mushroom production operations are beginning to use aeration to reduce odors and to reduce the time required to prepare the substrate. However, optimal aeration schemes have not been developed, and many operations use trial-and-error approaches or just set the aeration at a certain cycle. This experiment had two objectives: to develop a simulation model that predicts mushroom substrate temperatures under various aeration conditions, and to observe the effects of various aeration schemes on the substrate temperature. Aeration serves two purposes: to provide oxygen to microorganisms, and to remove heat from the substrate, allowing for better environmental control. The model, developed using the Stella simulation modeling package, is based on energy gains and losses and predicts substrate temperatures to determine optimal processing conditions. Model validation runs show good agreement between predicted and observed substrate temperature values when the model is adjusted to account for lags in the beginning of substrate heating. Overall root mean square error between predicted and observed substrate temperature was 8.1°C, the correlation between predicted and observed substrate temperature yielded an r2 value of 0.89, and the slope and intercept of the predicted vs. observed temperature linear regression curve are 0.975 and 3.10°C, respectively.

Spent mushroom substrate (SMS) was processed in an aerated floor vessel and compared to SMS processed by conventional windrow methodology. The aerated floor vessel design provided portability and ease of use. Three trials were run using SMS obtained directly from commercial mushroom production operations. Temperature and oxygen levels in the aerated and windrow SMS were monitored regularly. Odors were assessed on a weekly or bi–weekly schedule, both olfactometrically using human panels and quantitatively using gas chromatography with flame photometric detection (GC/FPD). Olfactometric assessment showed that the odors were significantly reduced by aeration in terms of intensity and pleasantness ratings. GC/FPD assessments also demonstrated that aeration consistently reduced sulfur compound levels.

Bioreactors were designed and built to study the effects of Phase I mushroom compost formulation on odor production. Three different poultry manure levels: 0x, 1x and 2x [0 %, 5.1 %, and 11.0 % dry weight basis, respectively] were used in compost formulations to determine if poultry manure influenced odor production. Air samples were collected for sensory odor measurements twice during the eight-day Phase I composting period (day one and day six) for three replicates. Phase I compost odors were quantified by a trained odor panel. Odor intensity and pleasantness ratings were significantly different on day one, however, neither the intensity nor the pleasantness was significantly different on day six. The amount of poultry manure used in formulation had no significant effect on total mushroom yield.

Objective: To review published algorithms for guiding the use of methylphenidate (MPH) in the treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents. Methods: A consensus roundtable of 12 experts was convened to review the evidence for the safety and efficacy of MPH in the treatment of ADHD, as well as the published algorithms and practice guidelines for using MPH. The experts reviewed the algorithms for practicality and acceptability by clinicians. Results: Algorithms that included MPH commonly selected it as the initial medication to be employed in the treatment of children with ADHD. Factors involved included its high efficacy, good safety record, and the ubiquitous nature of its appearance in the ADHD treatment literature. Conclusions: MPH should be considered as the first medication to be used in a treatment algorithm for children and adolescents with ADHD.

Three microporous membrane covers of various weights and porosities were compared for their ability to impede the transmission of odor-producing compounds released during Phase I of the mushroom substrate preparation process. Moist, cotton flannel 10 cm ×10 cm (4 in. ×4 in.) fabric swatches were used to assess the intensity of odors above four test piles: one with no cover and one with each of the three covers under investigation. The swatches were suspended above each pile (by laying them on top of 10 cm diameter ×10 cm long PVC pipe sections) for 1, 4, and 10 min durations. Upon completion of each test run, five panelists were asked to sniff swatches from all piles and all exposure times and rate the odor intensities from zero to five, zero indicating no detectable odor and five being equivalent to the odor present on a swatch exposed to an uncovered pile for 30 minutes. Additionally, a quantitative assessment of odors, using thermal absorption and gas chromatography, was conducted and the results yielded trends which were compatible with those obtained qualitatively, thus validating the effectiveness of the olfactory procedure employed. Ten minute duration test results indicated that cover A was most effective, cover C was nearly as effective, and cover B was the least effective, although a reduction in odor intensity was observed.

Trotz allen Wertewandels in unserer modernen Lebenswelt, trotz tiefgreifender Veranderungen gesellschaftlicher Zielsetzungen und individueller Lebenskonzepte hat sich die Familie als kleinste und intimste Zelle der Gesellschaft erhalten. Der Wunsch vieler Paare nach einem Kind ist auch heute so tief und existenziell, wie er es in der Geschichte der Menschheit immer war. Die Fahigkeit, zu empfangen und zu gebaren, stellt fur viele Frauen die Essenz ihrer Weiblichkeit dar, ebenso wie die Zeugungsfahigkeit fur viele Manner von entscheidender Bedeutung ist. Daher bedeutet ein sich nicht erfullender Kinderwunsch fur das betroffene Paar eine schwere Belastung in vielerlei Hinsicht. Es handelt sich um einen Krankheitszustand beider Partner mit betrachtlichem Leidensdruck. Der unerfullte Wunsch nach einem Kind kann dabei weitreichende soziale und psychologische Konsequenzen haben. Das Lebenskonzept und das Bild der Betroffenen von sich selbst als vollwertige Menschen werden dabei in Frage gestellt. In Abhangigkeit von soziokulturellen Faktoren kann die ungewollte Kinderlosigkeit auch massive soziale Probleme bis hin zur vollstandigen sozialen Achtung nach sich ziehen.

Die Moglichkeit, den Eintritt einer Schwangerschaft zeitlich zu bestimmen bzw. die Konzeptionsmoglichkeit zu regulieren, ist sicherlich eine der wesentlichsten gesellschaftlichen Entwicklungen des 20. Jahrhunderts gewesen. Kaum eine andere Entwicklung wird gesellschaftliche Strukturen und soziale Verhaltensweisen mehr beeinflusst haben. Die Altersstruktur der deutschen Bevolkerung veranschaulicht ◘Abb. 13.1.

Sunscreens absorb ultraviolet B (UVB) and it is a major concern that sunscreen use may lead to vitamin D deficiency.To investigate the relation between the amount of sunscreen applied and the vitamin D serum level in humans after UVB exposure under controlled conditions.Thirty-seven healthy volunteers with fair skin types were randomized to receive an inorganic sunscreen with sun protection factor (SPF) 8 of 0 mg cm(-2) , 0.5 mg cm(-2) , 1 mg cm(-2) , 1.5 mg cm(-2) , or 2 mg cm(-2) thickness on the upper body, approximately 25% of the body area. Participants were irradiated with a fixed UVB dose of 3 standard erythema doses 20 min after sunscreen application. This procedure was repeated four times with a 2- to 3-day interval. Blood samples were drawn before the first irradiation and 3 days after the last to determine the serum vitamin D level expressed as 25-hydroxyvitamin D(3) [25(OH)D].The vitamin D serum level increased in an exponential manner with decreasing thickness of sunscreen layer in response to UVB exposure. For all thicknesses of sunscreen, the level of 25(OH)D increased significantly after irradiation (P0.05), except for the group treated with 2 mg cm(-2) , in which the increase in 25(OH)D was not statistically significant (P=0.16).Vitamin D production increases exponentially when thinner sunscreen layers than recommended are applied (2 mg cm(-2) ). When the amount of sunscreen and SPF advised by the World Health Organization are used, vitamin D production may be abolished. Re-evaluation of sun-protection strategies could be warranted.

Plastic materials oftentimes are required to retain their properties in very hostile environments such as outdoors in sunlight or in highly oxidizing environments such as swimming pools or spas. Plastics and coatings being used in these environments must be stabilized to protect them against oxidative degradation. In the process of protecting the polymer, the chemical stabilizers themselves degrade or breakdown. The classes of stabilizers typically added to plastics and coatings used in these environments include: Benzenetriazoles, hindered amine light stabilizers, hindered phenols, and phosphites. This paper explores the permanence and decomposition chemistry of these common stabilizer types. Various analytical techniques and model compounds were utilized to elucidate loss mechanisms and the structures of decomposition products.

Individuals are recommended to wait for 20 min following sunscreen application before dressing. However, this is probably seldom done in daily life, and therefore we investigated how dressing earlier than 20 min after application affected the sun protection factor (SPF).To determine the SPF of a sunscreen applied at different amounts at 4, 8 and 20 min before dressing.An organic sunscreen was used on the backs of 22 healthy volunteers. Before SPF testing, participants wore a cotton T-shirt for 60 min after the test areas had been uncovered for 4, 8 or 20 min after sunscreen application. The SPF was also tested on unclothed skin.The median SPF was 11.7 (2 mg cm(-2)), 5.7 (1 mg cm(-2)) and 3.3 (0.5 mg cm(-2)) for unclothed skin, and 8.1 (2 mg cm(-2)), 4.8 (1 mg cm(-2)) and 2.2 (0.5 mg cm(-2)) following an interval of 8 min before dressing. The SPF was similar for time intervals of 20 and 8 min when the amount was 1 mg cm(-2) (P = 0.48) and 2 mg cm(-2) (P = 0.56). For 0.5 mg cm(-2) there was no difference between skin clothed after 20 min and unclothed skin (P = 0.19), nor between skin clothed after 4 min and after 8 min (P = 0.28).When sunscreens are applied at amounts of 1 and 2 mg cm(-2) the time between sunscreen application and dressing can be as little as 8 min. When less sunscreen is used the SPF is insensitive to the length of time between application and dressing.

Vinylidene chloride is a versatile monomer used primarily for making Vinylidene chloride copolymers. These copolymers are mostly used in food packaging to provide a good barrier-to-mass transport. Most applications rely on the low permeation of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. However, the polymers have also been shown to have good barrier to flavors and aromas. Thus, a barrier layer of one of these copolymers in a package structure not only prevents spoilage of the food item but prevents flavor “scalping” on the supermarket shelf. These copolymers are available in three forms. First, the resin for extrusion into film or sheet represents the largest segment. This segment includes monolayer and coextruded film and coextruded sheet. Second, a number of emulsion resins are used for solution applications. A thin layer is coated onto a substrate. Third, copolymer latexes are used for paper coatings, etc. The coatings from solution or latex dry clear. Vinylidene chloride homopolymer does not have commercial application because its melting temperature is too high to permit extrusion without degradation, and it does not dissolve in a suitable solvent for coating. Keywords: PVDC; permeability; packaging

Dermatophyte and nondermatophyte fungi are ubiquitious in the envionment. This study demonstates the presence of dermatophyte fungi and saprophytic fungi contaminating step stools and flooring samples in office examination rooms. The use of protective coverings as well as other barriers will help to protect both patients and health care workers from acquiring nosocomial infection.

Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Imbach mushrooms, which are cultivated commercially under environmentally controlled conditions, are the most valuable crop in Pennsylvania. In August 2011, we first observed a mucoraceous mold colonizing primordia and mature basidiocarps of a new brown portabella strain of A. bisporus at two commercial mushroom farms in Chester County, PA. This strain is a hybrid between a commercial strain producing white basidiocarps and a brown wild type isolate of A. bisporus. Mushrooms mature in weekly “flushes”. By third flush, 25% of the production surface at both farms was colonized by a fast growing mycelium that was initially white, subsequently yellow to golden brown, and finally grayish. Mushrooms colonized by the mold showed pitting, discoloration, and necrosis. Two pure cultures of the mold were obtained by the hyphal tip method from mature, necrotic basidiocarps at each farm. These isolates were accessioned in the ARS Culture Collection (NRRL, Peoria, IL) as NRRL 54814 to 54815 and 54818 to 54819. The cultures produced abundant aerial sporangiophores that branched dichotomously on potato dextrose agar. Light microscopic examination revealed that each branch terminated in a globose, multispored sporangium with a conspicuous columella. Individual cultures of NRRL 54818 and 54819 produced large (175 to 250 × 200 to 250 μm), barrel-shaped, dark brown to black zygosporangia between opposed suspensors, indicating they were homothallic. Morphological and cultural characteristics of the mold matched the description of Syzygites megalocarpus (3), a member of the Mucorales reported to colonize diverse, mostly fleshy basidiomycetes (2), including cultivated matsutake (Tricholoma matsutake) in Korea (1). Molecular phylogenetic confirmation of the morphological identification was obtained by PCR amplifying and sequencing domains D1 and D2 at the 5′ end of the nuclear ribosomal large subunit (LSU rDNA). The four isolates shared an identical LSU rDNA allele. A search of the NCBI nucleotide database, using a partial LSU rDNA sequence from NRRL 54814 as the BLAST query, revealed that it shared 99.5% identity with AF157216.1, a reference isolate of S. megalocarpus NRRL 6288 (3). To assess whether cultures of S. megalocarpus could induce the disease, caps of portabella and white button mushrooms were inoculated with 3.7 × 106 sporangiospores. When incubated in moist chambers at 21 to 22°C with a 12-h photoperiod, disease symptoms developed in 2 to 3 days on portabella that included discoloration and pitting at the site of inoculation. S. megalocarpus was reisolated from the symptomatic mushrooms and produced a colony identical to the original. By comparison, white button mushrooms inoculated with S. megalocarpus, using the same method, only showed minor pitting and discoloration. Disease symptoms were not observed on mushrooms inoculated with water as a negative control. Although development of new commercial varieties derived using “wild” genetically diverse stocks is an effective way to introduce desirable traits into cultivated mushrooms, it carries the risk of introducing new diseases into the industry. References: (1) K.-H. Ka et al. Korean J. Mycology 27:345, 1999. (2) R. L. Kovacs and W. J. Sundberg. Trans. Il. State Acad. Sci. 92:181, 1999. (3) K. O'Donnell. Zygomycetes in culture. Palfrey Contributions in Botany. No. 2. Department of Botany, University of Georgia, Athens, 1979.

Improved prevention and detection methods, as well as advances in medical treatment have resulted in a trend of increasing numbers of cancer survivors. Today, there are over 8 million cancer survivors, 5 million of whom were diagnosed 5 or more years ago. Cancer, once thought of as an acute disease, is increasingly being classified as a chronic disease. This article reviews physical, psychological, and social aspects of cancer survivorship, as well as other issues related to a diagnosis of cancer.

Habitat use estimates may be biased if the sampling design does not consider differences in a species' habitat use throughout a 24-hour period. We reviewed studies to examine the suitability of sampling designs in determining habitat use relative to a species daily activity pattern. Of 56 studies we reviewed, 22 presented data only from daylight sampling and 12 did not describe their methods with enough detail to determine when sampling occurred. Elk (Cervus elaphus) habitat use throughout the entire 24-hour period was different (P < 0.001) from that during diurnal hours. Managers should be cautious when implementing management strategies developed only from diurnal datasets

Increased- and low-fiber diets composed of common hospital foods were tested for their ability to alter stool weight, frequency of defecation, transit time, and absorption efficiency. The diets were calculated to be isocaloric and similar in protein, fat, and carbohydrate. They were dissimilar in ash and fiber. No stimulants, secretagogues, food concentrates, or extracts were used on either diet. Six normal, healthy, male subjects consumed each constant diet for five to eight days. Diets and stool composites were analyzed for protein, fat, fiber, moisture, and ash. Carbohydrate and calories were calculated. Stool weight during ingestion of the low-fiber diet averaged 51 gm. per day; subjects had an average of one bowel movement every 33 hr.; and the mean transit rate was 48 hr. When subjects consumed the increased-fiber diet, values were 157 gm., 19h., and 12 hr., respectively. Measurements of fecal protein, fat, carbohydrate, and calories from the low-fiber diet were less than half those observed when the increased-fiber diet was consumed. By altering specific components of a normal diet, e.g., fiber, significant differences can be made in bowel habit and absorption efficiency.

The relationship of gas bubble disease (GBD) in fish to decompression-induced bubble formation was investigated with salmonids. Acute bioassays were used to determine equilibration times for critical effects in fish decompressed from depths to 200 fsw. It was found that equilibration of critical tissues was complete in 60-90 min. Salmonids and air-breathers are sensitive to decompressions at similar levels of supersaturation if elimination of excess gas following decompression is unrestricted. However, if elimination is restricted, bubble formation and growth increase accordingly. Tests with mixtures of He-O2, Ar-O2, N2-O2 (80% inert gas: 20% O2) and pure oxygen demonstrated that gas solubility as well as supersaturation (delta P), pressure ratio (initial pressure: final pressure), and absolute pressure must be considered in setting tolerance limits for any decompression. Gases with higher solubility are more likely to produce bubbles upon decompression. Oxygen, however, does not follow this relationship until higher pressures are reached, probably owing to its function in metabolism and in binding with hemoglobin. Tissue responses observed in both GBD and decompressed fish involved similar pathological effects at acute exposures. The circulatory system was consistently affected by bubbles that occluded vessels and blocked flow through the heart.