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Hemorrhagic disease (HD) of deer is caused by epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) or bluetongue virus (BTV) and is considered one of the most important viral diseases of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Despite evidence of changing patterns of HD in the northeastern and upper midwestern US, the historical and current patterns of HD in the Great Plains remain poorly described. We used results from an annual survey documenting HD mortality to characterize historic and current patterns of HD in the northern and central Great Plains (North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma), US, between 1982 and 2020. Further, we assessed temporal change using linear regression to determine change in annual reporting intensity (percentage of counties in a state with reported HD) and change in reporting frequency (the number of years a county or state reported HD) during each decade between 1982 and 2020. Across the 38-yr study period, HD reports expanded northeast across latitude and longitude. Intensity of HD reports significantly increased during this period for three (North Dakota, South Dakota, Kansas) of five states examined. Frequency of reports also increased for all five states. Such changes in northern latitudes might lead to increased deer mortality in regions where HD epizootics have been historically less frequent. Understanding how patterns of HD are changing on the landscape is important when considering future deer management in the face of other mortality factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Hunting can have direct effects (i.e., mortality) and indirect effects (i.e., behavior changes, such as shifting away from foraging areas to circumvent risk from hunters) on white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Deer populations within the Chattahoochee National Forest of northern Georgia, USA, have declined significantly since the 1980s. Since deer population sustainability is a concern, understanding the potential negative effects of hunting on female deer is important. During the 2018–2019 and 2019–2020 hunting seasons, we evaluated the indirect effects of 7 firearms hunts for male deer on 20 non-target female deer. We used GPS locations recorded every 30 min during pre-hunt, hunt, and post-hunt periods to calculate and compare movement rates during the day and night, as well as the size and landscape characteristics of the space the deer utilized. Our results suggest that the low level of hunting pressure in our study area led to no biologically significant changes in female deer movements. To the extent of the findings presented in this paper, adjustments to the management of hunting in our study area do not appear to be necessary to minimize hunting-related disturbances for female deer. However, managers should continue to consider female deer behavior when evaluating future changes to hunting regulations. Perceived risk associated with hunters can cause white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to shift their activity away from key foraging areas or alter normal movements, which are important considerations in managing hunting and its effects on a population. We studied the effects of seven firearms hunts on the movements of 20 female deer in two Wildlife Management Areas within the Chattahoochee National Forest of northern Georgia, USA, during the 2018–2019 and 2019–2020 hunting seasons. Deer populations and the number of hunters in our study area have declined significantly since the 1980s. In response, hunting regulations for the 2019–2020 hunting season eliminated opportunities for harvesting female deer. To evaluate the indirect effects of antlered deer hunting on non-target female deer, we calculated 90% utilization distributions (UDs), 50% UDs, and step lengths for pre-hunt, hunt, and post-hunt periods using the dynamic Brownian bridge movement model. Data included 30 min GPS locations for 44 deer-hunt combinations. Pre-hunt 50% UDs ( x −   = 7.0 ha, SE = 0.4 ha) were slightly greater than both hunt ( x −   = 6.0 ha, SE = 0.3 ha) and post-hunt ( x − = 6.0 ha, SE = 0.2 ha) 50% UDs (F = 3.84, p = 0.03). We did not detect differences in step length, nor did we detect differences in size or composition of 90% UDs, among the periods. Overall, our results suggest that the low level of hunting pressure in our study area and lack of exposure to hunters led to no biologically significant changes in female deer movements. To the extent of the findings presented in this paper, adjustments to the management of hunting in our study area do not appear to be necessary to minimize hunting-related disturbances for female deer. However, managers should continue to consider female deer behavior when evaluating future changes to hunting regulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The purpose of our review is to bridge the research gaps between cervid physiology and ecology by offering a comprehensive review of cervid visual ecology that emphasizes the interplay between the visual adaptations of cervids and their interactions with habitats and other species. Ultimately, a better understanding of cervid visual ecology allows researchers to gain deeper insights into their behavior and ecology, providing critical information for conservation and management efforts. This review examines the visual systems of cervids in relation to their ability to meet their ecological needs and how their visual systems are specialized for particular tasks. Cervidae encompasses a diverse group of mammals that serve as important ecological drivers within their ecosystems. Despite evidence of highly specialized visual systems, a large portion of cervid research ignores or fails to consider the realities of cervid vision as it relates to their ecology. Failure to account for an animal's visual ecology during research can lead to unintentional biases and uninformed conclusions regarding the decision making and behaviors for a species or population. Our review addresses core behaviors and their interrelationship with cervid visual characteristics. Historically, the study of cervid visual characteristics has been restricted to specific areas of inquiry such as color vision and contains limited integration into broader ecological and behavioral research. The purpose of our review is to bridge these gaps by offering a comprehensive review of cervid visual ecology that emphasizes the interplay between the visual adaptations of cervids and their interactions with habitats and other species. Ultimately, a better understanding of cervid visual ecology allows researchers to gain deeper insights into their behavior and ecology, providing critical information for conservation and management efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Wildlife emergencies (e.g. injured animals) often require capture or humane dispatch of animals to resolve the situation. Conducted electrical weapons (CEWs) have the potential to immobilise white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) for a short duration to avoid potential risks of extended immobilisation (e.g. chemical immobilisation) and increase safety for managers and the public during humane killing by gunshot. Aims. To test rapid immobilisation with minimal long-term physiological consequences of CEW immobilisation of white-tailed deer. Methods. We arranged five treatment groups of captive deer, including (1) chemical immobilisation with 5-s CEW exposure (n = 5), (2) chemical immobilisation with 15-s CEW exposure (n = 5), (3) 5-s CEW exposure with no chemical immobilisation (n = 10), (4) 15-s CEW exposure with no chemical immobilisation (n = 10) and (5) a control group with no chemical immobilisation or CEW exposure (n = 10). We conducted treatments 1 and 2 to determine short-term physiological effects of CEWs on deer, related to overall welfare. In treatment groups 1 and 2, we sedated deer to collect blood immediately before CEW exposure, and 2 days and 5 days post-exposure for serum biochemical analysis (to measure physiological markers of organ and tissue damage). We observed deer before, during and after treatments to evaluate potential behavioural changes. Key results. All deer showed signs of muscle paralysis immediately after exposure to CEW and regained muscle control immediately after the exposure ended. Serum biochemistry results for treatment group 1 and 2 revealed significant increases in creatine kinase (CK) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) 2 days post-treatment, before returning to preexposure concentrations by day 5-post-exposure, suggesting temporary myopathy. By 15-days post-exposure, deer that were only exposed to the CEW had 27 of 39 (69%) remotely fired probes still attached. No long-term behavioural or physiological changes were observed posttreatment. Conclusions. Our findings suggest that for immobilisation of white-tailed deer, short-term exposure to a CEW to is a potential alternative to typical capture techniques and can provide sufficient immobilisation to approach and humanely kill deer by gunshot if necessary in wildlife emergencies. Implications. As with all capture techniques, trainings and protocols should be developed to ensure the safety of personnel and animals during CEW exposures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resident Canada geese cause substantial economic losses to agriculture and personal property and compromise air traffic safety throughout the U.S. Destroying eggs of Canada geese nesting in the contiguous U.S. is a primary component of the integrated management regime to reduce damage caused by the species. This requires regular searches to destroy eggs throughout nesting season, which may be laborious and costly. Much of the breeding by resident Canada geese occurs on small ponds (≤5 acres). Anecdotal observations suggested that social pressure among breeding pairs of Canada geese typically dictates that only one aggressive breeding pair establishes a territory on small ponds. Using this logic, managers allow a single nesting pair on small ponds and destroy their eggs, while deriving the perceived benefits of the sentinel geese excluding other nesting geese. However, a single pair of geese may also cause damage, decimating plants and depositing accumulations of feces in the localized area. We hypothesized that removal of single nesting pairs of Canada geese on small ponds after the onset of breeding activity would result in a void of geese for the remainder of the reproductive season, thus providing an alternate lower-cost management strategy. We further hypothesized that if the male goose was not removed, he would continue to defend the territory, excluding other nesting geese. Our study was conducted on 22 independent sites with small ponds in Bucks County, southeastern Pennsylvania. Each site held historically one nesting pair of Canada geese. To test our hypotheses, breeding pairs of Canada geese were assigned to one of three experimental groups: 1) control neither female nor male goose was removed, the eggs were treated under normal protocols to prevent hatching, and the nest and eggs were removed after the 28-day incubation period; 2) after nest initiation, only the female goose was removed, and the nest and eggs were removed; and 3) both the female and male goose were removed and the nest and eggs were removed. We determined that targeted removal of a nesting pair or only the female of a nesting pair of Canada geese could be effective in eliminating breeding on a small pond for the entire nesting season. Likewise, the traditional approach of allowing a single aggressive nesting pair on small ponds reliably excluded additional nesting pairs.

Hemlock Farms Community Association (HFCA) is a >4,500-acre private, gated community located in Pike County, Pennsylvania, established in the 1960s. During our study, 3,150 homes existed in HFCA, with 400 more homes expected to be built in the future. In recent years, the community took proactive steps to coexist with white-tailed deer in the community. Residents were fully involved in deer management decision making early in the process. Through the Pennsylvania Game Commission Deer Management Assistance Program, HFCA has allowed hunting by residents in undeveloped areas of the community to assist in reducing and maintaining deer densities. Non-lethal techniques to prevent browsing of the forest understory and landscape vegetation by deerother than fencingwere ineffective. U.S. Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services was consulted in 2005 by HFCA to initiate an integrated white-tailed deer damage management program to reduce damage to forest regeneration and landscaping, and to protect human health and safety. In October 2005, we began lethal deer removal via sharpshooting to reduce the deer population to 10 deer per square mile of forested habitat (50 deer) from an estimated =125 deer per square mile of forested habitat. By winter 2009-2010, we removed a total of 830 deer, bringing the population within the management goals of the community. The forest understory rebounded, deer-vehicle collisions were reduced to an annual level of near zero. Physiological indices suggested that the health of deer improved as population densities were decreased. Residents voted annually on a referendum to continue culling of deer. Therefore, monitoring of the deer population and education of residents will remain important components of the deer management regime.

Deer-vehicle collisions are on the rise and are a costly side-effect of increasing deer populations and expanding transportation systems. We evaluated the efficacy of sound as a deterrent for reducing deer-vehicle collisions by observing the behavioral response of captive and free-ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to 5 pure-tone sound treatments: 0.28 kHz, 1 kHz, 8 kHz, 15 kHz, and 28 kHz. We conducted preliminary trials with semi-tame deer at the University of Georgia Captive Deer Research Facility. We exposed 8 deer in a 0.25-ha outside paddock and 5 deer in individual stalls (2.7 m x 4.8 m) to the various treatments at >70 dB Sound Pressure Level. We recorded 406 observations and determined that the behavior of captive deer did not change when presented with any of the 5 pure-tone sound treatments. We also conducted field trials at Berry College Wildlife Refuge, Georgia and gathered 319 behavioral observations of free-ranging deer relative to a moving automobile (56.45 kph). The automobile was fitted with a sound-producing device and speakers that emitted one of the pure-tone sound treatments or no sound treatment as a control. For the 1 kHz, 8 kHz, 15 kHz, and 28 kHz sound treatments, we observed no change in deer behavior relative to the control. When exposed to the 0.28 kHz treatment, deer reacted in a manner more likely to cause deer-vehicle collisions. Our results indicate that deer within 10 m of roadways did not alter their behavior in response to the pure-tone sound treatments we tested in a manner that would prevent deer-vehicle collisions. Commercially available wildlife warning whistles (aka deer whistles) are purported to emit similar consistent, continuous sounds as pure tones at various frequencies within the range of those presented in this study. Our data suggests that deer-whistles, as they are purported to operate, are likely not effective in preventing deer-vehicle collisions.

Deer-vehicle collisions are a major concern throughout much of the World, accounting for human injury and death, damage to vehicles, and immeasurable waste of deer as a wildlife resource. Throughout the planning of our research project, we reviewed the primary literature to identify strategies with the most potential to reduce deer-vehicle collisions. Our review is available online as an annotated bibliography at: http://www.forestry.uga.edu/h/ research/wildlife/devices/GADOTLiteratureReview.pdf. Our findings indicated that most states in the U.S. have attempted to minimize deer-vehicle collisions through a variety of techniques. However, most studies have not empirically examined the efficacy of such techniques and many deer-deterrent devices were not designed with an understanding of the sensory capabilities of deer. Many previous studies also were isolated in scope or were inadequately replicated to afford statistical validity. Hence, the questions regarding efficacy of many deer deterrent devices remain largely unanswered and there still exists a need for research on mitigation strategies based on the sensory abilities of deer. Until these research results become available, management efforts to minimize deer-vehicle collisions should focus on (1) implementing proper deer-herd management programs; (2) controlling roadside vegetation to minimize its attraction to deer and maximize visibility for motorists; (3) increasing motorist awareness of the danger associated with deer-vehicle collisions; (4) thoroughly monitoring deer-vehicle collision rates; and (5) encouraging communication and cooperation among governments, wildlife researchers, highway managers, motorists, and others involved in the issue of deer-vehicle collisions. We are conducting a research project designed to provide a more thorough understanding of the physiological processes driving white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) roadway behavior. Our ultimate goals are to use this knowledge to develop improved strategies designed to reduce deer-vehicle collisions.

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Ungulates are a main component in carnivore diets but determining consumption of juveniles is difficult. Past studies have used size of prey remains such as small hooves or bones to classify scat samples as containing content attributable to juveniles. Hair thickness and color may also be used, but seasonality could influence the coat of an adult by developing thinner hairs in summer that more closely resemble those from juveniles. Given this uncertainty, we aimed to quantitatively determine a hair diameter threshold to categorize the age-class of ungulate hair in scats. We obtained hair samples from captive (n = 133) and vehicle-killed (n = 5) white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) from Georgia and Virginia. We used microphotography image analysis to measure the width of hairs and their cuticular casts. We used a linear model to assess differences among body locations, age-classes, and locations along the hair strand. We also analyzed the change in hair width of juveniles as they aged. Hair diameter of adults, but not juveniles, differed significantly depending on body location, yet adult hairs were always significantly wider than those from juveniles. Juvenile hairs significantly increased in width after mid-September, when they molt into adult coats in our study area. We identified 104.2 µm measured at either 1/8 or 1/4 distance from the follicle as a threshold width to distinguish adult from juvenile hairs, with 95.3% accuracy. Our findings indicate that juvenile white-tailed deer can be distinguished from adults based on the width of hairs found in carnivore scats up until juveniles are 5 months old. More broadly, our results demonstrate that hair width may be used to classify juvenile versus adult prey remains in carnivore diet studies in other predator–prey systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

(Odocoileus virginianus) populations. In 2013, we surveyed deer hunters (n = 3,600) and landowners (n = 4,604) in southwest Minnesota to gauge their preferences for managing deer. We hypothesized a priori that, irrespective of their perceived impacts of deer, hunters would prefer deer populations to be increased and landowners would prefer deer populations to be decreased. Our findings suggest that defining stakeholder groups according to primary associations with deer (i.e., farming and hunting) accurately categorized differences in tolerance levels for deer populations in our study area. Deer damage was considered relatively minor by landowners, yet, 51% of landowners wanted deer densities reduced. Although 59% of hunters were satisfied with the number of deer, 62% of hunters still wanted deer densities increased in the future. Almost two-thirds of hunters were not satisfied with the number or quality of bucks where they hunted, and an antler-point restriction was the only potential regulation supported by hunters to reduce harvest mortality rates of bucks. To enable managers to monitor trends in public satisfaction relative to the fundamental objectives of deer management in an area, we recommend conducting frequent surveys of primary stakeholders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]