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Populations of Australia's largest terrestrial marsupial carnivore, the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii), are rapidly declining in the wild due to Tasmanian Devil Facial Tumour Disease (TDFTD). One tool which can reduce the loss of genetic diversity is genome resource banking. This study examines the application of an oocyte vitrification protocol, initially developed in a model marsupial carnivore, to the endangered Tasmanian devil. Ovarian tissue was transported to the laboratory on ice from Tasmania which took up to 48 h. Individual granulosa oocyte complexes (GOC) were isolated enzymatically and the viability of oocytes from primary GOC was assessed immediately following isolation or after exposure to cold shock, vitrification and thawing media without exposure to liquid nitrogen or the full vitrification and thawing process. There was no decline in oocyte viability following cold shock or exposure to the vitrification and thawing media. Following the full vitrification and thawing process there was a decline in oocyte viability (chi(2)=20.0, P<0.001) but approximately 70% of oocytes remained viable. This study provides further evidence that oocyte vitrification is a promising strategy for genome resource banking in carnivorous marsupials and suggests that it should be considered in conservation plans for the survival of the iconic Tasmanian devil., (Copyright 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Since the late 1970s research has suggested that marsupial spermatozoa did not suffer cold shock. We have re-examined cold shock to investigate problems with freezing of spermatozoa from a dasyurid marsupial, the fat-tailed dunnart (Sminthopsis crassicaudata). Epididymal spermatozoa were rapidly cooled to 0.5 degrees C in a pre-cooled tube held in an iced-water slurry. Upon re-warming all spermatozoa were immotile and the addition of 10% or 20% egg yolk to the sperm medium had no beneficial effect. Spermatozoa that were rapidly cooled to 4 degrees C maintained only 2% motility when re-warmed but the addition of at least 10% egg yolk was beneficial and upon re-warming greater than 65% of the initial motility was maintained. In order to achieve motile spermatozoa at 0 degrees C, controlled-rate cooling at 0.5 degrees C min(-1) was examined. In the absence of egg yolk there was a significant decline in the percentage of motile spermatozoa below 4 degrees C. However, the inclusion of at least 10% egg yolk resulted in no loss of motility in spermatozoa cooled to 0 degrees C. This is the first experimental study indicating that spermatozoa from a marsupial are highly susceptible to cold shock and that the impact of rapid chilling can be mitigated by the addition of 10% egg yolk. The ability to successfully cool the spermatozoa of S. crassicaudata to 0 degrees C may have an important role in future studies examining dasyurid sperm cryopreservation.

Dasyurids are a diverse group of Australian native carnivores and insectivores that contains several threatened species. Despite successful cryopreservation of sperm from several marsupials, only 3% postthaw motility is reported for dasyurid marsupials. This study examined sperm preservation in the fat-tailed dunnart (Sminthopsis crassicaudata), an experimental model, with supplementary observations on the eastern quoll (Dasyurus viverrinus) and northern quoll (Dasyurus hallucatus). In S. crassicaudata, a toxicity trial demonstrated that incubation with up to 40% glycerol did not reduce sperm viability, suggesting that glycerol is not toxic to dasyurids. On the basis of this finding, S. crassicaudata, D. viverrinus, and D. hallucatus sperm were extended to a final concentration of 20% or 40% glycerol in Tris-citrate fructose and frozen in liquid nitrogen vapor. Postthaw sperm from all three species were nonmotile, and vital staining (SYBR14 and propidium iodide) indicated that sperm were nonviable. However, there was no evidence suggesting disruption of normal gross morphology or loss of acrosomal integrity when assessed by Bryan's staining. After freeze drying, Bryan's staining indicated that approximately 80% of S. crassicaudata sperm had normal acrosomes and no head loss. Despite being nonviable, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling showed that S. crassicaudata sperm frozen in 40% glycerol or freeze-dried had no DNA damage compared with fresh controls. This study has described a method for preservation of the dasyurid sperm nuclei, but continued studies are required to achieve viable motile sperm and establish tools for the long-term storage of dasyurid sperm.

This study describes ovarian changes during the natural and stimulated reproductive cycle of breeding (< or =12 month) and retired (>12 month) fat-tailed dunnarts, Sminthopsis crassicaudata. Increased urinary cornified epithelial cells and the influx of leukocytes defined day 0, at which time the naturally cycling females had already ovulated; at day 16 females had no antral follicles, but by day 20 antral follicles had begun to develop. There was no difference between naturally cycling breeding and retired females. Females were stimulated with 1 IU equine serum gonadotropin (eSG) during the intermediate phase on day 16 and killed 3, 4, or 5 days later. Stimulation resulted in a significant increase in the number of growing antral follicles but retired females demonstrated a reduced response. Upon collection from breeding females 4 days following eSG stimulation, 100% of oocytes were at the first polar body (PB1) stage, those collected from retired females were immature upon collection but within 48 h 98.2+/-1.9% were cultured to the PB1 stage. The rate of ovulation was high in breeding females 5 days following stimulation but retired females were less reliable, and in both groups all oocytes were degraded. This is the first study to describe a reliable technique, involving ovarian stimulation during the intermediate phase and segregation of age groups, allowing the collection of a large number of healthy PB1 stage oocytes from S. crassicaudata. This is important for the development of further assisted reproductive techniques for this species and threatened dasyurids.

The mammalian ovary contains numerous immature preantral follicles that are not dependent on endocrine support, unlike the more mature hormone-dependent antral follicles. Preantral follicles can be enzymatically dissociated to yield immature oocytes that survive sub-zero preservation better as they lack a temperature-sensitive meiotic spindle. These techniques are highly applicable to gamete banking, which is an urgent requirement for Australian carnivorous marsupials as several species have rapidly declining populations and risk extinction. The present study developed protocols for the transport, dissociation, preservation and culture of granulosa cell-oocyte complexes (GOC) from the ovaries of dasyurid marsupials. High viability of GOC following enzymatic dissociation is reported and it was demonstrated that GOC are of significantly better quality following refrigerated storage for 24 h compared with storage at room temperature. Oocytes from primary follicles were not damaged by cold shock or the toxicity of vitrification media and following vitrification in liquid nitrogen 69.42+/-2.44% of oocytes were viable. However, the surrounding granulosa cells demonstrated significant damage post-thaw. These granulosa cells proliferated during a 48-h culture period resulting in significant improvements in GOC quality. The present study is a valuable step towards cryostorage of dasyurid gametes and represents fundamentally important methods by which we can contribute to the conservation of Australia's native predators.

Assisted breeding technology (ART), including artificial insemination (AI), has the potential to advance the conservation and welfare of marsupials. Many of the challenges facing AI and ART for marsupials are shared with other wild species. However, the marsupial mode of reproduction and development also poses unique challenges and opportunities. For the vast majority of marsupials, there is a dearth of knowledge regarding basic reproductive biology to guide an AI strategy. For threatened or endangered species, only the most basic reproductive information is available in most cases, if at all. Artificial insemination has been used to produce viable young in two marsupial species, the koala and tammar wallaby. However, in these species the timing of ovulation can be predicted with considerably more confidence than in any other marsupial. In a limited number of other marsupials, such precise timing of ovulation has only been achieved using hormonal treatment leading to conception but not live young. A unique marsupial ART strategy which has been shown to have promise is cross-fostering; the transfer of pouch young of a threatened species to the pouches of foster mothers of a common related species as a means to increase productivity. For the foreseeable future, except for a few highly iconic or well studied species, there is unlikely to be sufficient reproductive information on which to base AI. However, if more generic approaches can be developed; such as ICSI (to generate embryos) and female synchronization (to provide oocyte donors or embryo recipients), then the prospects for broader application of AI/ART to marsupials are promising.

The spermatozoa of most marsupials lack nuclear stabilising disulfide-bonded protamines found in eutherian mammals. However, disulfide stabilisation has been observed in the acrosome of macropodid (Macropus eugenii) and phalangerid (Trichosurus vulpecula) marsupials. As a result this organelle, which is normally fragile in eutherian mammals, is robust and able to withstand physical and chemical challenge in these marsupials. The present study examined acrosomal characteristics of the spermatozoa of three dasyurid marsupials; the fat-tailed dunnart (Sminthopsis crassicaudata), eastern quoll (Dasyurus viverrinus) and northern quoll (Dasyurus hallucatus). In all species examined Bryan's staining demonstrated that significant acrosomal loss occurred following physical challenge with osmotic stress, cryopreservation without cryoprotectant and exposure to detergent (Triton-X). Bromobimane staining indicated that the acrosomes of dasyurids lacked stabilising disulfide bonds. As reported for the wallaby and possum, calcium ionophore (A23187) did not induce the acrosome reaction-like exocytosis in dasyurid spermatozoa but treatment with diacylglycerol (DiC8) caused significant acrosome loss at concentrations similar to those effective for other marsupials. The present study found that the spermatozoa of dasyurids are more sensitive to physical challenge than the previously-studied marsupials and we suggest that this is due to the absence of acrosomal stabilising disulfide bonds.