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Attentional focus in endurance sports is subdivided into an internal and an external focus. The aim of this study was to assess attentional focus in the three disciplines of an Ironman triathlon and relate them to performance. Attentional focus strategies of athletes competing in the Hawaiian Ironman were assessed by a questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed to measure attentional focus separately for the three disciplines swimming, cycling and running. Findings revealed differences of attentional focus in the three disciplines. While both foci (external and internal) were used comparably during the swim and bike the focus became more internal during the run. There was no relationship between attentional focus and performance. This study shows that the use of attentional focus in an Ironman triathlon should be seen discipline specific. In general, attention during an Ironman race is not entirely focused to one direction but internal as well as external aspects are important during the whole competition., An Ironnian triathlon is composed of a 3.8k swim, a 180k bike ride and a 42.2k marathon run, all in one event without any rest in between. The world's best [...]

WITH GROWING CONCERNS ABOUT GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE and rising gasoline prices, there is increasing interest in expanding opportunities for people to walk or bike to key destinations. Global climate change [...]

Recent evidence suggests regular physical activity can positively influence academic performance. Although, little has been published on physical activity's impact on academic performance of students with intellectual disabilities, research shows the impact on brain and cognitive function of movement and physical activity. In this study, seven primary grade students and six intermediate elementary grade students with intellectual disabilities engaged in a daily structured physical activity lesson (in addition to physical education offered twice within a six-day cycle) directed by their own life skills (special education) classroom teacher prior to academic work. The participants completed language arts and mathematical seat work for 20-minute sessions each day, starting the first four days of the project without the additional structured physical activity. A 16-day period commenced on the 5th day during which the participants were engaged in aerobic exercise guided by a commercial DVD and supervised by the classroom teacher. A withdrawal phase and follow-up phase were both completed as well. Trend analysis graphs displayed academic results that showed most of the intermediate students consistently improved academic work following the physical activity while the inconsistent performance was seen in more of the primary aged students. Teachers in both classrooms commented that their students appeared to be focused more on classwork following the physical activity sessions., In recent years, conclusive evidence has indicated that physical activity in school-aged children can not only have a positive impact on health-related areas of need (Centers for Disease Control and [...]

Mapping technologies have made considerable strides in recent decades. Global positioning systems (GPS), remote sensing satellites, Web-based mapping services, and geographic information systems (GIS) have facilitated the collection, distribution, analysis, and ultimately interaction with geospatial information. In particular, portable GPS have altered how individuals participate in mapping. Individuals can use GPS to collect tracings of their personal interactions with the environment. These interactions can then be uploaded to one of many available Web-based mapping services. Once uploaded, the geospatial data can be mapped and shared among the broader community of users. Such volunteered geographic information (VGI) exemplifies the conceptualization of an individual collecting, mapping, and sharing personal geographic information. This paper focuses on challenges surrounding VGI. To help place these challenges in a broader context, specialized Web services and GPS technologies developed for the bicycling community will serve as examples of the current status and future prospects of VGI. Keywords: Volunteered geographic information, neogeography, user-generated content, Web 2.0, global positioning systems, and bicycling, Introduction The World Wide Web (the Web) has evolved from a static encyclopedic unidirectional warehouse of information to a more dynamic, interactive, and participatory medium. This evolution, referred to as [...]

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of maximal strength training on cycling economy (CE) at 70% of maximal oxygen consumption ([[??]O.sub.2]max), work efficiency in cycling at 70% [[??]O.sub.2]max, and time to exhaustion at maximal aerobic power. Responses in 1 repetition maximum (1RM) and rate of force development (RFD) in half-squats, [[??]O.sub.2]max, CE, work efficiency, and time to exhaustion at maximal aerobic power were examined. Sixteen competitive road cyclists (12 men and 4 women) were randomly assigned into either an intervention or a control group. Thirteen (10 men and 3 women) cyclists completed the study. The intervention group (7 men and 1 woman) performed half-squats, 4 sets of 4 repetitions maximum, 3 times per week for 8 weeks, as a supplement to their normal endurance training. The control group continued their normal endurance training during the same period. The intervention manifested significant (p < 0.05) improvements in 1RM (14.2%), RFD (16.7%), CE (4.8%), work efficiency (4.7%), and time to exhaustion at preintervention maximal aerobic power (17.2%). No changes were found in [[??]O.sub.2]max or body weight. The control group exhibited an improvement in work efficiency (1.4%), but this improvement was significantly (p < 0.05) smaller than that in the intervention group. No changes from pre- to postvalues in any of the other parameters were apparent in the control group. In conclusion, maximal strength training for 8 weeks improved CE and efficiency and increased time to exhaustion at maximal aerobic power among competitive road cyclists, without change in maximal oxygen uptake, cadence, or body weight. Based on the results from the present study, we advise cyclists to include maximal strength training in their training programs. KEY WORDS road cycling, rate of force development, half-squat, oxygen cost of cycling

This paper discusses the results of willingness-to-shift study conducted in catchment areas of suburban rail stations in Mumbai, India, with the purpose of promoting walking and bicycling for rail access. The data was collected from two distance bands in rail catchment areas through household personal interview survey using a walking or bicycling specific questionnaire. The information included statements on 'environmental benefits of use,' 'limitations of use,' and 'improvement in facilities' and respondents were asked to state their willingness/unwillingness at each statement as well as before and after going through the whole information. The commuters were categorized by access mode in use, personal income, occupation group, age, and by access distance. Two statistics were used to examine the willingness to shift: share in willingness and potential to shift. It was observed that the socioeconomic level of commuter and area characteristics affects the attitude of commuters. The commuters with better socioeconomic status were found less accommodative toward walking or bicycling modes, whereas, those at lower or middle economic level and residing at longer distances from the suburban rail stations were identified as potential shifters. In general, 10-12% potential to shift was observed in the study area. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9488(2010)136:1(3) CE Database subject headings: Urban areas; Public transportation; Rail transportation; India; Bicycles; Walkways. Author keywords: Transit access; Willingness to shift; Walk; Bicycle; India; Shift potential.

Transport-related problems, such as automobile dependence, traffic congestion, and greenhouse emissions, lead to a great burden on the environment. In developing countries like China, in order to improve the air quality, promoting sustainable travel modes to reduce the automobile usage is gradually recognized as an emerging national concern. Though there are many studies related to the physically active modes (e.g., walking and cycling), the research on the influence of attitudes to active modes on travel behavior is limited, especially in China. To fill up this gap, this paper focuses on examining the impact of attitudes to walking and cycling on commute mode choice. Using the survey data collected in China cities, an integrated discrete choice model and the structural equation model are proposed. By applying the hybrid choice model, not only the role of the latent attitude played in travel mode choice, but also the indirect effects of social factors on travel mode choice are obtained. The comparison indicates that the hybrid choice model outperforms the traditional model. This study is expected to provide a better understanding for urban planners on the influential factors of green travel modes., 1. Introduction In recent years, the increasing automobile ownership and usage cause serious traffic problems and lead to a large amount of greenhouse gas emissions. The commuting trip, as one [...]

The metabolic response to two different forms of high-intensity intermittent cycle exercise was investigated in young women. Subjects (8 trained and 8 untrained) performed two bouts of high-intensity intermittent exercise: short sprint (SS) (8-s sprint, 12-s recovery) and long sprint (LS) (24-s sprint, 36-s recovery) for 20 min on two separate occasions. Both workload and oxygen uptake were greater in the trained subjects but were not significantly different for SS and LS. Plasma glycerol concentrations significantly increased during exercise. Lactate concentrations rose over the 20 rain and were higher for the trained women. Catecholamine concentration was also higher postexercise compared with preexercise for both groups. Both SS and LS produced similar metabolic response although both lactate and catecholamines were higher after the 24-s sprint. In conclusion, these results show that high-intensity intermittent exercise resulted in significant elevations in catecholamines that appear to be related to increased venous glycerol concentrations. The trained compared with the untrained women tended to show an earlier increase in plasma glycerol concentrations during high-intensity exercise. intermittent exercise; catecholamines; glycerol; lactate

The strength cycle ergometer has been proposed as a method of simultaneously increasing aerobic conditioning and muscular strength, because of its unique capacity of disengaging the pedal crank, thus allowing for concurrent single-leg cycling. The purpose of this study was to assess the aerobic and muscular strength effects of strength cycle training (SCT), comparing it to similar standard cycle training. A total of 28 recreationally-trained adult subjects (9 men, 19 women) were paired for [VO.sub.2]peak and randomly assigned to either SCT or Monark cycle training (MCT). Subjects trained 3 days per week following a progressive interval protocol for 9 weeks under supervised conditions. Training intervals (5 minutes' duration) consisted of 3 minutes of standard cycling at an intensity of 60-85% of maximum heart rate (HRmax), and 2 minutes of either the disengaged cycling mode (SCT) or standard cycling plus 30 W (MCT). Subjects began training for a total of 25 minutes per session, progressing to 45 minutes per session by study's end. Prior to and following training, subjects were measured for [VO.sub.2]peak; submaximal [VO.sub.2], heart rate (HR), RPE, power output, and knee and ankle isokinetic strength. Training resulted in significant (p [less than or equal to] 0.05) increases in [VO.sub.2]peak (14.5%) and submaximal power output (11%), and significant reductions in submaximal [VO.sub.2], HR, and RPE in both groups. Significant increases in bilateral isokinetic knee extension (4-6%) and left ankle plantar flexion (10.5%) were noted following training in both groups. No group differences were detected in any variable. Although the strength cycle effectively increased aerobic function and resulted in modest selected increases in lower-extremity muscular strength, these changes were not different from those seen using a similar standard cycling protocol. KEY WORDS. cycling, lower-extremity strength

The purpose of this study was to obtain the optimal pedaling rate in bicycle ergometer exercise by measuring probe reaction time, which is a good indicator of attention demand, by changing workloads and pedaling rates, and to discuss the relevant rhythm of lower limb movement. Subjects were 19 healthy men whose M age was 22.8 yr. They were instructed to pedal a bicycle ergometer, and their reaction time at different workloads and pedaling rates was measured to estimate an optimal pedaling rate. Probe reaction time was measured under the conditions as follows: pedaling rate of 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 rpm at each workload of 40, 60, 80, 100, and 120 watts. The estimated values obtained by regression analysis for pedaling rate to give the minimum probe reaction time were 63.5 rpm for 40 watts, 58.8 rpm for 60 watts, 61.3 rpm for 80 watts, 63.4 rpm for 100 watts, and 64.8 rpm for 120 watts. These resuits indicated that the optimal pedaling rate was approximately 60 rpm regardless of the workload.

This study examines various motives for participating in the sport of cycling. Past research on the sport of cycling has mostly been limited to physiological studies of elite cyclists. However, past research on marathon runners and triathletes reveals a long list of possible motives for participation. A total of 1,239 male and female cyclists completed a modified version of the Motivations of Marathoners Scales (MOMS) that measured psychological motives, physical motives, social motives, and achievement motives. As a group, cyclists endorsed goal achievement and health concerns as reasons for cycling. Male cyclists were more likely to endorse competition than female cyclists and females were more likely to endorse weight concern, affiliation, and self-esteem as reasons for cycling. Competitive cyclists were more likely than non-competitive cyclists to endorse goal achievement, competition and recognition as reasons for cycling. Non-competitive cyclists were more likely to endorse weight concerns and affiliation as motives. Road cyclists were more likely to endorse goal achievement and competition while mountain bikers endorsed life meaning as a motivation for cycling. Potential applications to research, coaching, and training in the sport of cycling are discussed., Cycling in the United States is in the middle of a revival. This can partly be attributed to the success of American cyclists in the Tour de France, long considered [...]

During exhaustive incremental pedaling exercises, root mean square or amplitude of integrated electromyographic values exhibits a nonlinear increase, i.e., the so-called electromyographic threshold ([EMG.sub.Th]). As proposed by various authors, this [EMG.sub.Th] could be used as a complementary indicator of the aerobic-anaerobic transition in physiological evaluations. However, most of these studies used visual detection for the [EMG.sub.Th] and to date no previous study has shown the reliability of this type of [EMG.sub.Th] detection. We aimed to compare a visual and a mathematical method for [EMG.sub.Th] detection in each of 8 lower limb muscles during incremental cycling exercise. Our results showed an over-estimation in the number of cases in which [EMG.sub.Th] was detected when using visual inspection (n = 45) compared with the mathematical method (n = 32). However, no significant differences were observed between the 2 methods concerning the power output at which [EMG.sub.Th] occurred. These results suggest that [EMG.sub.Th] should be mathematically detected. In this context, coaches can easily perform such measurements in order to evaluate the impact of their training programs on the neuromuscular adaptations of their athletes. For example, an automatic mathematical detection of [EMG.sub.Th] could be performed during a pedaling exercise in order to detect neuromuscular fatigue. Furthermore, this index could be used during test or training sessions performed either in a lab or in ecological situations. Moreover, the use of [EMG.sub.Th] to predict ventilatory threshold occurrence could be an interesting tool for trainers who cannot use the very expensive devices needed to analyze respiratory gas exchanges. Key Words. root mean square, cycling, signal analysis, mathematical, visual, muscle recruitment

The purpose of this investigation was to relate the heart rate and lactate response during simulated cycling time trials to incremental laboratory tests. Subjects (N = 10) were tested for V[O.sub.2]max (56.1 [+ or -] 2.4 ml*[kg.sup.-1]*[min.sup.-1]) and lactate threshold during incremental tests to exhaustion. Power output and heart rate (HR) at threshold was assessed by 3 methods: lactate deflection point (LaT), onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA), and the point on the lactate curve at maximal distance from a line connecting starting and finishing power output (Dmax). Power output determined at these thresholds was 282.1 [+ or -] 4.2, 302.5 [+ or -] 1.3, and 296.0 [+ or -] 1.8 W, respectively, whereas HR was determined to be 88.6 [+ or -] 0.01, 92.2 [+ or -] 0.01, and 91.0 [+ or -] 0.01% of maximum, respectively. Power output and HR were significantly lower for LaT than for the other 2 methods (p < 0.05). On separate visits, cyclists were instructed to perform maximum efforts for 30 and 60 minutes (30TT and 60TT). Lactate, HR, perceived exertion (RPE), and metabolic variables were measured during the time trials. During the 30TT, participants sustained a significantly higher lactate level (5.29 [+ or -] 0.3 vs. 3.43 [+ or -] 0.3 mmol*[L.sup.-1], p < 0.001), percentage of maximum HR (%HRmax) (90.3 [+ or -] 0.02 vs. 84.6 [+ or -] 0.01, p = 0.009), and overall RPE (15.5 [+ or -] 0.5 vs. 14.4 [+ or -] 0.5, p = 0.009), than during the 60TT. V[O.sub.2] was not significantly different between the time trials; however, VC[O.sub.2] (p = 0.008), ventilation (p = 0.004), and respiratory exchange ratio (p = 0.02) were significantly higher during the 30TT. Correlations were found between HR at LaT (r = 0.78), OBLA (r = 0.78), and Dmax (r = 0.71) for the 60TT, but not for the 30TT. These data suggest that despite a large variability in blood lactate during time trial efforts of 30 and 60 minutes (from 1.8 to 10.8 mmol*[L.sup.-1]), HR was consistently 90% of maximum for the 30TT and 85% for the 60TT. HR during the 30TT was approximated by HR corresponding to OBLA and Dmax, whereas HR during 60TT was approximated by LaT. Key Words. lactate deflection point, lactate threshold, OBLA, Dmax, anaerobic threshold

ABSTRACT. The authors examined whether differences between children and adults in the application of muscle forces during a dynamic-contact task (cycling) can be attributed to children's relatively lower segmental mass [...]

McNaughton, L.R., S. Roberts, and D.J. Bentley. The relationship among peak power output, lactate threshold, and short-distance cycling performance: Effects of incremental exercise test design. J. Strength Cond. Res. 20(1):157-161. 2006.--The purpose of this study was to compare the physiological results of 2 incremental graded exercise tests (GXTs) and correlate these results with a short-distance laboratory cycle time trial (TT). Eleven men (age 25 + 5 years, Vo3nax 62 [+ or -] 8 ml.[kg.sup.-1]*[min.sup.-1]) randomly underwent 3 laboratory tests performed on a cycle ergometer. The first 2 tests consisted of a GXT consisting of either 3-minute ([GXT.sub.-min.]) or 5-minute ([GXT.sub.-min]) workload increments. The third test involved 1 laboratory 30minute TT. The peak power output, lactate threshold, onset of blood lactate accumulation, and maximum displacement threshold (Dmax) determined from each GXT was not significantly different and in agreement when measured from the [GXT.sub.-min] or [GXT.sub.-min]. Furthermore, similar correlation coefficients were found among the results of each GXT and average power output in the 30-minute cycling TT. Hence, the results of either GXT can be used to predict performance or for training prescription. KEY WORDS. diagnostic, endurance, athletes, correlation, validity

The purpose of this study was to compare oxidative modification of blood proteins, lipids, DNA, and glutathione in the 24 hours following aerobic and anaerobic exercise using similar muscle groups. Ten cross-trained men (24.3 [+ or -] 3.8 years, [mean [+ or -] SEM]) performed in random order 30 minutes of continuous cycling at 70% of V[O.sub.2]max and intermittent dumbbell squatting at 70% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM), separated by 1-2 weeks, in a crossover design. Blood samples taken before, and immediately, 1, 6, and 24 hours postexercise were analyzed for plasma protein carbonyls (PC), plasma malondialdehyde (MDA), and whole-blood total (TGSH), oxidized (GSSG), and reduced (GSH) glutathione. Blood samples taken before and 24 hours postexercise were analyzed for serum 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxygnanosine (8-OHdG). PC values were greater at 6 and 24 hours postexercise compared with pre-exercise for squatting, with greater PC values at 24 hours postexercise for squatting compared with cycling (0.634 [+ or -] 0.053 vs. 0.359 [+ or -] 0.018 nM x mg [protein.sup.-1]). There was no significant interaction or main effects for MDA or 8-OHdG. GSSG experienced a short-lived increase and GSH a transient decrease immediately following both exercise modes. These data suggest that 30 minutes of aerobic and anaerobic exercise performed by young, cross-trained men (a) can increase certain biomarkers of oxidative stress in blood, (b) differentially affect oxidative stress biomarkers, and (c) result in a different magnitude of oxidation based on the macromolecule studied. Practical applications: While protein and glutathione oxidation was increased following acute exercise as performed in this study, future research may investigate methods of reducing macromolecule oxidation, possibly through the use of antioxidant therapy. KEY WORDS. lipid peroxidation, protein carbonyls, reactive oxygen species